Amitābha (Sanskrit pronunciation:[ɐmɪˈtaːbʱɐ], "Measureless" or "Limitless" Light), also known asAmida inJapanese (Chinese:阿彌陀;pinyin:Ēmítuó, widely pronounced Āmítuó), is one of the mainBuddhas ofMahayana Buddhism and the most widely veneratedBuddhist figure in East Asian Buddhism.[2][3][4] Amitābha is also known by the nameAmitāyus ("Measureless Life").[5]
Amitābha is the main figure in two influential Indian BuddhistMahayana Scriptures: theSutra of Measureless Life and theAmitābha Sūtra.[6] According to theSutra of Measureless Life, Amitābha established apure land of perfect peace and happiness, calledSukhāvatī ("Blissful"), where beings whomindfully remember him withfaith may bereborn and then quickly attainenlightenment. The pure land is the result of aset of vows Amitābha made long ago. As his name means Limitless Light, Amitābha's light is said to radiate throughout the cosmos and shine on all beings. Because of this, Amitābha is often depicted radiating light, a symbol for hiswisdom.[5] As per the name Amitāyus, this Buddha is also associated with infinite life, since his lifespan is said to be immeasurable. Amitābha's measureless life is seen as being related to his infinitecompassion.[5]
Amitābha devotion is particularly prominent inEast Asian Buddhism, where the practice of mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha (known asnianfo in Chinese,nembutsu in Japanese) is seen as a path to liberation open to everyone. Amitābha is also the principalBuddha inPure Land Buddhism, which is a tradition focused on attaining birth in the pure land by relying on the power of Amitābha (also known as "Other Power") and faithfully reciting Amitabha's name. Amitābha is also a major deity inTibetan Buddhism. where he is associated with pure land practices, as well asphowa (the transference of consciousness at the time of death).
The names Amitāyus and Amitābha (in various Chinese transliterations and translations) are used interchangeably inEast Asian Buddhism.[5] InTibetan Buddhism however, Amitāyus is distinguished from Amitābha, and they are depicted differently inHimalayan art.[7] Amitāyus is also known as a Buddha of long life in Tibetan Buddhism. In East Asian Buddhism, Amitābha is most often depicted as part of a triad with the two bodhisattvasAvalokiteśvara andMahāsthāmaprāpta. In Tibetan Buddhism, the triad includes Avalokiteśvara andVajrapani (orPadmasambhava) instead.
Amitabha statue inBorobudur,IndonesiaKorean Amitabha triad with Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, the standard Amitabha triad according to theLarger Sukhāvatīvyūha.[8]Ming dynasty (1368–1644) statue of Amitābha inHuayan Temple inDatong,Shanxi, ChinaThe main Amitabha image atChion-in temple,Kyoto, Japan
The most influential Amitābha focused Mahayana sutras are two sutras known by the Sanskrit titleSukhāvatī-vyūha (Blissful Array, or theArray ofSukhāvatī). These two are theShort Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (also known as theAmitābha Sutra) and theLarger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (also known as theSutra of Infinite Life). These sutras are the main Indian Mahayana sources for the teachings on Amitābha and hispure land.[9] In these sutras, Amitābha is a transcendent and immortal Buddha who resides in a purebuddhafield that he created. This pure land is located billions of worlds away in the western direction and all beings can attain rebirth there, where they can swiftly become Buddhas themselves.[10]
According to theSūtra of Limitless Life, eons ago, Amitābha was a bodhisattva monk named Dharmākara. In some versions of thesūtra, Dharmākara is described as a former king who, having come into contact with Buddhist teachings through the buddhaLokeśvararāja, renounced his throne and became a monk. For five eons (kalpas), Dharmākara contemplated all the qualities of all the purebuddhafields (realms created a Buddha existing outside ofordinary reality) throughout the cosmos. He then resolved to become a Buddha and to create the best of all purebuddha-fields possessed of many supreme qualities.[11][12]
The sutra then recounts how Dharmākara made a series ofbodhisattva vows (praṇidhāna), pledging that unless these vows were fulfilled, he would not attain Buddhahood. Different versions of the text list varying numbers of these vows (the most common sutra containsforty eight vows), which serves as the foundation for Pure Land doctrine. These solemn resolutions set out the type of pure land Dharmākara aspired to create, the conditions under which beings might be born into that world, and what kind of beings they would be. After many eons of bodhisattva practice, Dharmākara became Amitābha Buddha (his enlightenment having occurred ten kalpas ago). Since he now presides over the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī ("Utmost Bliss") in the western direction, it is understood that his vows were indeed fulfilled.[11][12]
Among these "past vows", Dharmākara ensured that all beings born in his land would never fall into lower realms, and would possess golden divine bodies with manysuperpowers. He also vowed that they would be firmly established on the path toBuddhahood and could enjoy profound peace, happiness and an unlimited lifespan there. Amitābha’s name would be glorified by countless Buddhas, and those who sincerely place their trust in him and wish to be reborn in his Pure Land can attain birth there.[11][12]
The central aspect of these vows is the ones which discuss how to attain birth in the pure land. In Pure Land Buddhism, one of the most influential passages has been the eighteenth vow, which states:
If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded however, are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma.[13]
This vow is also called the"original" or "fundamental" vow in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism, indicating its special status in this tradition. This vow, along with some other passages, made it possible to argue that all kinds of people would attain birth in the pure land, even very wicked, deluded anddefiled persons.[14] Barring that one did not commit the five grave acts (patricide, matricide, the murder of anarhat, harming a Buddha, causing schism in thesangha), this scripture seems to open up the possibility of birth in the pure land to everyone who faithfully thinks of the Amitābha even just ten times.[14] A modified version of this universalist teaching (which even removes the exclusion of beings who comitt the five grave acts) would become a central doctrine of Pure Land Buddhism and remains part of its lasting appeal.[15]
The sutra also explains how, at the moment of death, Amitābha, will appear to those who have aspired to be born in Sukhāvatī.[11] Bodhisattvas who arrive in Sukhāvatī enter the state ofnon-retrogression (from which there is no falling back into lower states of rebirth), and the state of "one more birth," meaning they require only one additional lifetime before attaining Buddhahood. Once in Sukhāvatī, all beings can also easily visit other pure lands to make offerings to innumerable Buddhas.[11] In Sukhāvatī, beings are born asexually, appearing fully formed upon lotus flowers in Amitābha’s presence.[11] Some lotuses remain closed, signifying individuals who still harbor doubts about Amitābha. Such beings remain enclosed for 500 years, experiencing their lotus as a palace, yet deprived of the Buddha’s presence. Eventually, as they dispel their doubts, they emerge from this period of purification and witness the splendor of Amitābha.[11]
Both versions of theSukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra provide various descriptions which may have served as a guide for meditating on Amitābha within his Pure Land.[11] According to the sutras, those aspiring to be reborn there should cultivatebodhicitta, listen to Amitābha’s name, contemplate him, pray for rebirth in his land, and accumulate merit as a basis for their future birth.[11] Given these conditions, rebirth in Sukhāvatī and eventual enlightenment are significantly more accessible than striving for Buddhahood under the harsh conditions of this world, which is Amitābha Buddha's ultimate intent for creating the pure land.[11] This teaching about an easily accessible afterlife made Amitābha a popular Buddha inGandhara, from where it spreadCentral Asia andEast Asia.
Regarding theSmaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, this text primarily describes the various features of Sukhāvatī and further clarifies the methods of attaining rebirth there. It describes, for example, how the birds and trees of Sukhāvatī, themselves manifestations of Amitābha, continuously sing song of the Dharma. According to this sūtra, rebirth in Sukhāvatī is achieved by sincerely holding Amitābha’s name in mind with undistracted focus for one to seven days—an application of the ancient meditation known asbuddhānusmṛti (recollection of the Buddha).[11]
"Amida Manifesting in the Dharma-body ofExpedient Means", Japanese painting, at theMet.
TheLargerSukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra describes the Buddha Amitābha as having a body that radiates limitless light throughout the ten directions. The sutra states:
The majestic radiance of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is exalted and supreme; the radiance of other Buddhas cannot compare with it. Some Buddhas’ light shines upon a hundred Buddha-lands, and other Buddhas’ light shines upon a thousand Buddha-lands. Briefly stated, the light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life illuminates all the Buddha-lands.....Sentient beings who encounter this light have the three defilements swept away, and they become soft and gentle in body and mind. They leap and dance with joy, and the good mind arises in them. When those suffering pain and travail in the three evil realms see this light, they all find respite and become free of afflictions. After their lives have ended, they will all gain emancipation. The light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is resplendent and brilliantly illuminates the lands of the Buddhas throughout the ten quarters; there is no place where it is not heard. It is not I alone who praise this light now; all Buddhas, sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas together praise it just as I do.[16]
In the LargerSukhāvatīvyūha, Shakyamuni also describes the Buddha Amitābha's light as inconceivable and ultimate indescribable, saying that he "could never describe it completely", even if he spent eons trying.[16]
Regarding the lifespan of Amitābha, the LargerSukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra states that it is "everlasting and beyond reckoning", totally beyond any calculation or thought.[16]
BothSukhāvatīvyūha sūtras also proclaim Buddha Amitābha's special status, by stating that he is praised and revered by all the Buddhas of the ten quarters and that all Buddhas teach their retinues about birth in Amitābha's Pure Land.[17][18]
A scroll depicting the "Welcoming Descent" (Ch: laiying, Jp: raigo) of Amida Buddha and Twenty-five Bodhisattvas coming to guide a dying person to the pure land, 1668, Japan, Edo period.MET.
Amitābha is also mentioned in numerous other Buddhist sources.Kenneth Tanaka notes that "Thirty one Sanskrit texts and over one hundred Chinese and Tibetan translations refer to Amitābha* and/or Sukhavati.*"[19]
The earliest Buddhistsutra mentioning Amitābha is the translation into Chinese of thePratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (般舟三昧經;Bozhōu Sānmèi Jīng) by theKushan monkLokakṣema. This text has been dated to between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE by modern buddhologists and may have been translated from theGandhari language (a fragment of which was discovered in 2018).[20][21] Other important Mahayana texts which mention Amitabha and his pure land ofSukhavati include theAjitasena Sutra, theLotus Sutra, theNirvana Sutra, theMahāmegha Sutra, and theSamādhirāja Sūtra.[22][23][24][25] There are also several IndianDhāraṇī sutras (sutras focused on specific magical chants) which are focused on Amitābha including various editions of theAmitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī, as well as theSūtra of the Dhāraṇī of the King of the Sound of Amitābha’s Drum, theAnantamukhanirhāra-dhāraṇī and theFundamental Dhāraṇī of Immeasurable Life Tathagata (T.930).[26][27]
Jeff Wilson writes that over a fifth of the sutras in theTaishō Tripiṭaka reference Amitābha,[28] but three sutras in particular have become seen as canonical in East Asian Buddhism: the twoSukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras discussed above and theAmitāyus Contemplation Sūtra.[29] TheContemplation Sūtra is believed to have been translated into Chinese by Kalayāśas in the early fifth century and belongs toa group of texts focused on the visualization of Buddhas.[30] Unlike other Pure Land sūtras, theContemplation Sūtra emphasizes meditative practices to have a vision of Amitābha, including thirteen stages of visualization. These include meditating on the setting sun, pure water turning into beryl, and eventually visualizing the entire Pure Land with its jeweled pavilions, lotus throne, Amitāyus (Amitābha), and his attendant Bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta.[30]
The sūtra also explains that even those guilty of the five gravest transgressions may, just before death, encounter a virtuous teacher who instructs them in the Buddha’s Dharma. If such a person sincerely calls upon Amitāyus’ name ten times, their accumulated negative karma will be purified, and they will be reborn within a lotus bud in Sukhāvatī. After twelve eons, the lotus will bloom, and the individual will behold Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, who will preach the Dharma and inspire them to cultivate bodhicitta.[30] This sūtra became a cornerstone of the Pure Land tradition, as it offers hope to all people. Its emphasis on salvation through Amitābha’s boundless compassion extends even to the most evil individuals.[30]
Some Mahāyānatreatises mention Amitābha. TheDasabhumikavibhāsā (十住毘婆沙論, T.1521), which is traditionally ascribed toNāgārjuna and survives only in a Chinese translation byKumārajīva (344-413), teaches the "easy" practice of maintaining constant mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha as a way to attain birth in the pure land.[31][32] The authorship of this text has been disputed by some scholars, including Akira Hirakawa.[33][34]
Vasubandhu (fl. 4th to 5th century CE) is traditionally credited with composing theDiscourse on the Pure Land (T.1524), a commentary on theShorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, which only survives in Chinese translation by the Indian translatorBodhiruci (6th century). This work outlines a five-part practice that may have functioned as a visualization meditation.[35] Amitābha and his pure are also briefly discussed by Vasubandhu's brotherAsanga in hisMahāyānasaṃgraha.[36]
The author of theRatnagotravibhāga concludes the text with the following dedication to Amitāyus: "By the merit I have acquired through [writing] this [treatise], may all living beings come to perceive the Lord Amitāyus* endowed with infinite light."[19]
According toKenneth Tanaka, Amitābha Buddha emerged as a central figure in theGandharan Buddhism of the first century CE.[37][38] Numerous AmitābhaBuddha images have been discovered in the GreaterGandhāra region (in modernPakistan andAfghanistan) from about the first century CE onwards during the Kushan era (30–375 CE). This, along with evidence which suggests that the two main Pure Land sutras were written inthe Gandhari language, indicates that Amitābha rose to prominence inGandharan Buddhism (and in the greaterKushana Empire) during the first century CE.[39][37]
Regarding the main historical source of the figure of Amitābha, some Western scholars have proposed possible influences on Buddhism fromZoroastrian deities (Ahura Mazda orZurvan) or fromBrahmanical deities or concepts (such as the sun godSurya or the immortality nectarAmritā).[38][40] Japanese scholars like Kōtatsu Fujita meanwhile tend to place the origin of Amitābha Buddha squarely within Buddhist tradition.[41][38]
Other scholars, especially Japanese authors, cite various passages fromearlier Buddhist sources which mentionShakyamuni Buddha radiating light rays and which state that his lifespan is immeasurable. Such ideas seem to have been most common in the early BuddhistMahāsāṃghika tradition, who promoted thedocetic idea that the Buddha was ultimately a transcendent (lokottara) being who nevertheless manifested a magical body on earth.[41][42] One of their sutras is cited byVasumitra (in a passage that was translated three times by different Chinese figures) as stating that "the form body (rupakaya), supernatural power (prabhāva) and lifespan (ayus) of a Buddha is unlimited (ananta)."[41][43][44][42] Julian Pas also notes that, in the version translated byKumārajīva, Vasumitra's passage speaks of the limitless light of the Buddha ("kuan-ming-wu-liang"), which could be a translation ofabha amita.[42]
Another Mahāsāṃghika (Lokottaravāda) source, theMahāvastu, states: "the purity of the Buddha is so great that the worship of the Exalted One is sufficient for the attainment ofNirvāna" and "from the Buddha’s smile, there radiate beams which illuminate all buddhafields."[45] Pas sees the Mahāsāṃghika as promoting a kind of Buddhistbhakti (devotional) movement. These connections with earlyMahāsāṃghika doctrines indicate the possibility that Amitābha may have initially signified the limitless lifespan and radiance of the Buddha, pointing to the transcendent dimensions of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni.[41][38] Since the Mahāsāṃghika school was also active in the northwest of India and as far north asBamiyan (Afghanistan), Pas argues that they are a likely source for the ideas that influenced the rise of the devotionalcultus of Amitābha in northwest India, Gandhara, andBactria.[45]
The first knownepigraphic evidence for Amitābha is the bottom part of a statue found in Govindnagar,Pakistan and now located atGovernment Museum, Mathura. The statue is dated to "the 26th year of the reign ofHuviṣka" i.e., 104 CE.[22] It is a work ofKushan art, made during theKushan Empire (30–375 CE), and was dedicated to "Amitābha Buddha" by a family of merchants.[48][46][47]
The 26th year of the Great King Huveṣka, the 2nd month, the 26th day. On this day by Nāgarakṣita, the (father) of the trader (Sax-caka), the grandson of the merchant Balakatta, the (son of Buddhapila), an image of the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha was set up for the worship of all buddhas. Through this root of merit (may) all living things (obtain) the unexcelled knowledge of a buddha.[22]
Another early epigraphic mention of Amitabha (c. 610 CE) is found inPatan (Lalitpur). It is a verse which states: "I praise Amitabha, the best, dispeller of illusion by the light of greatprajña. The light, victor who lives inSukhavati withLokesvara, the destroyer of the fear arising in the world, bearer of the lotus, andMahasthamaprapta, the affectionate-hearted one."[49] One of the last Indian sculptures of Amitābha can be found in the trademark black stone of thePala Empire (c. 750–1161 CE), which was the last Buddhist empire of India.
The appearance of sculptural remains dating to the end of the second century suggests that Amitābha was becoming popular in the first and second centuries CE in Gandhara and Central Asia. Apart from the Gandhara region, not much evidence has been found for extensive Amitabha worship in the rest of theIndian subcontinent before the 8th century.[37] During the 8th century, the Chinese monkCimin Huiri visited India and learned about Pure Land Amitabha devotion there.[37]
From its initial home in Greater Gandhāra, Amitābha worship and its images quicklyspread via the Silk road toCentral Asian kingdoms likeKhotan, and then toChina as well as Southeast Asian regions likeIndonesia. The earliest dated Amitābha image in China is from theLongmen Grottoes and is dated to 519 CE.[50] During theSui Dynasty (581–618) and the succedingTang dynasty, China saw a growth in the creation of Amitabha images and paintings. Some exemplary Amitabha art from this period can be found inDunhuang.[51]
Amitābha is one of the most important Buddhas inEast Asian Buddhism. Some of the earliest evidence for Amitābha devotion is found in the works ofZhi Dun (314–366), aNeo-Daoist convert to Buddhism.[52] The Chinese translations ofKumārajīva (344–413 CE),Buddhabhadra (359–429 CE), and others introduced the main Pure Land Sutras to East Asian Buddhists.[53]
In China, "Buddha recollection" (Skt:buddhānusmṛti, Ch:nianfo) based on Amitābha became the central practice ofPure Land Buddhism, a tradition which developed gradually through the writings and teachings of several key Chinese monks that lived from theNorthern Wei (386–534) period to theTang dynasty (618 to 907). Key figures in this tradition includeTanluan (476–554),Daochuo (562–645),Shandao (613–681),Huaigan (c. 7th century) andFazhao (746–838).[54][55] These Pure Land masters promoted and defended the view that any type of person could reach Amitābha's Pure Land (and immediately attain the state ofnon-retrogression) through relatively easy and accessible practices like reciting or chanting Amitābha's name. They argued that this practice was effective due to Amitābha's compassionateOther Power, which was the dominant cause for one's birth in the pure land (where one could attain Buddhahood much more swiftly and easily). This made Amitābha centered Pure Land Buddhism a very popular practice among laypeople and commoners who did not have the time for extensive meditation or other Buddhist practices.[56]
Descent of Amitabha over the Mountain, Hanging scroll,Eikan-dō, Kyoto, Japan.
Regarding the nature of Amitābha Buddha himself, Pure Land masters like Daochuo and Shandao argued that Amitābha was asaṃbhogakāya (self-enjoyment body) Buddha. This view ran counter to the previously popular idea which saw Amitābha as anirmāṇakāya (transformation body) Buddha, like Shakyamuni Buddha.[57][58]
Asaṃbhogakāya is a divine body associated with more transcendent Buddhas which are beyong thetriple world and have unlimited lifespans.[59][60] Anirmāṇakāya meanwhile is a form body which is more contingent and human-like (though still supramundane), and also has a limited lifespan and manifests anirvana which appears as death or cessation.[61] As such, saṃbhogakāyas have a higher ontological status in the classic Mahayana schema of the triple body (trikaya). Some Indian Mahayana works state that saṃbhogakāyas are only visible and accessible to bodhisattvas who have entered thebodhisattva stages. In spite of this, Shandao and other Pure Land masters affirmed that Amitābha and his pure land were a saṃbhogakāyaand also that it was accessible to all kinds of beings. According to Shandao, this is only possible because of the great compassionate Other Power of Amitābha Buddha.[62]
Amitābha devotion also became an important current within otherChinese Buddhist traditions, like theTiantai,Sanlun, andVinaya schools. During theSong dynasty (960–1279), Tiantai monks such as Shengchang, Ciyun Zunshi, andSiming Zhili, founded Pure Land societies which focused on the recitation of Amitābha's name.[63] Later eras saw further doctrinal refinements of Chinese Amitābha devotion, with the writings of scholars likeYuan Hongdao (1568–1610) andOuyi Zhixu (1599–1655).[64][65] During theQing dynasty (1644–1912), scholars of the Huayan school likePeng Shaosheng (1740–1796) also adopted and wrote on Amitābha devotion, identifying Amitābha Buddha withVairocana, the cosmic Buddha of theAvatamsaka Sutra.[66]
The recitation of Amitābha's name is a widespread practice among contemporary Chinese Buddhists (and other Buddhists in the East Asian mainland).[67] This practice known asnianfo (念佛) in Chinese andnembutsu in Japanese and entails the recitation or chanting (melodic or monotone) of the phrase 南無阿彌陀佛 (Mandarin: Nāmó Ēmítuófó, Japanese: Namu Amida Butsu) which means "Homage to Amitābha Buddha". Aside from being a popular chant and meditation, this phrase is also seen asauspicious and is reproduced in many ways includingcalligraphy scrolls, publicinscriptions, charms,amulets, altarpieces and electronic devices.[68]
Amida Buddha at the Phoenix Hall ofByōdō-in,Uji, Japan
Amitābha also became a central figure forJapanese Buddhism. His worship became established on the island during theNara period (710–794) and was it one of the main practices taught in theTendai school during theHeian period (794–1185).[69][70]
The popularity of Amitābha centered practices eventually led to the formation of independent Pure Land schools which focused on Amitābha exclusively. The Tendai monkHōnen (1133–1212) was the most influential figure who led this Pure Land movement during theKamakura period. Hōnen was converted to the Pure Land path through his reading of Shandao and the other Chinese masters and became a popular author and preacher, bringing many people to the Pure Land teaching. He argued that people should set aside other practices and focus on the simple recitation of Amitābha's name to gain birth in the pure land. Compared to the complex teachings of the other traditions of the time, this simpler approach to Buddhism was much more appealing to common laypeople. This led to an increase in Amitābha devotion among commoners.[71]
Over time, these new Amitābha focused traditions established byHōnen's followers (mainlyJōdo-shū, andShinran'sJōdo Shinshū) became the largest Buddhist tradition in Japan and remain so to this day.[72]
Amitābha is an important figure inTibet,Mongolia,Nepal,India and other regions whereTibetan Buddhism is practiced. In Tibetan Buddhist depictions, Amitābha appears withbodhisattvasVajrapani andAvalokiteśvara, the former to his left and the latter to his right. There numerous Tibetan Buddhist teachings and practice lineages which focused on attaining rebirth in the buddhafield of Amitābha.[79][80] These include exoteric (or sutra) and esoteric (or tantric) practices.[80] The composition of Amitābha focused works was popular among major Tibetan Buddhist figures such asSakya Pandita,Dolpopa,Tsongkhapa andKarma Chagme.[81][82]
In Tibetan Buddhism, Amitābha is clearly distinguished from Amitāyus (Measureless Life), while both names are used interchangeably in East Asian Buddhism.[5]Tibetan Buddhism sees Amitāyus as an enjoyment body (saṃbhogakāya) while Amitābha is seen as amanifestation body.[7]
Japanese depiction of the Amida Triad in Seed Syllable form (Siddham Script).
Birth in Amitābha's Sukhavati remains an important goal for many Tibetan Buddhists, especially laypersons who commonly revere Amitabha,Avalokiteshvara andPadmasambhava asthree bodies of a single Buddha.[83] Amitābha is invoked during the yogic death practice calledphowa ("transference of consciousness at the time of death"). Furthermore, Amitāyus is also commonly invoked in practices relating to longevity and preventing an untimely death.[84] In Tibetan Buddhism, Amitāyus is also one of the three deities of long life (Amitāyus,White Tara andUṣṇīṣavijayā).Amitāyus being a compound ofamita ("infinite") andāyus ("life"), and so means "he whose life is boundless".
In JapaneseShingon Buddhism, Amitābha is included as part of thethirteen Buddhas. Amitābha is associated with theDiamond Realm (vajradhātu), whereas Amitāyus is associated with theWomb Realm (garbhakoṣadhātu).[87] Shingon, like Tibetan Buddhism, also usesspecial devotional mantras for Amitābha, though the mantras used differ. Amitābha is also one of the Buddhas featured in theWomb Realm Mandala used inShingon practices, and sits to the west, which is where the Pure Land of Amitābha is said to dwell.
In Esoteric Buddhism, Amitābha Buddha has variousmantras associated with him. His main seed syllable mantra ishrīḥ.[4]
InTibetan Buddhism, the main mantra of Amitābha isOm ami dewa hri (Sanskrit:oṃ amideva hrīḥ). This is an alternative form ofoṃ amitābha hrīḥ.
Amitabha's main mantra inShingon Buddhism isOm amirita teizei kara um (Japanese:オン・アミリタ・テイゼイ・カラ・ウン), which represents the underlying Sanskrit form:oṃ amṛta-teje hara hūṃ.
Six-character Name (Jp: "Namo Amida Butsu") with Images of Sakyamuni and Amida,Manpuku-ji,Osaka, Japan
The proper form of Amitābha's name inSanskrit isAmitābha, masculine, and thenominative singular isAmitābhaḥ. This is a compound of the Sanskrit wordsamita ("without bound, without limit") andābhā ("light, splendor"). Consequently, the name literally means boundless light or limitless light.[88] The nameAmitāyus (nominative formAmitāyuḥ) means limitless life, from the Sanskritayus.[88]
InChinese, the most common name is阿彌陀佛, which is pronounced "Ēmítuófó" or "Amítuófó" in modern Chinese. The Chinese 阿彌陀佛 is either a transliteration of the Sanskrit "Amitābha" or possibly thePrakrit form "Amidā'a". It is not, according toJan Nattier, a transliteration of "Amita" ("Limitless") alone.[88] "Fo" (佛) is the Chinese word for "Buddha".[89][88] This transliteration goes back to the early translations ofLokaksema.[88]Vietnamese,Korean, and Japanese traditionally use the same Chinese characters, though they are pronounced differently (Japanese:Amida Butsu, Korean:Amita Bul, Vietnamese:A Di Đà Phật).
In addition totransliteration, the name Amitābha was also beentranslated into Chinese usingcharacters. One of the earliest such translations was 無量 Wúliàng ("Limitless").[90] This was also used in longer names like "Infinite Light" (Wúliàngguāng 無量光) and "Infinite Purity" (Wúliàng Qīngjìng 无量清净, possibly from the Prakrit *Amidā'a-viśuha).[88] In the same fashion, the name Amitāyus ("Infinite Life") has been translated as 無量壽 (Wúliàngshòu), though this appears at a later date than the Amitābha derived names.[88] These translated names are not, however, very commonly used.
In Japanese, Amitābha is also called Amida Nyorai (Japanese:阿弥陀如来, "theTathāgata Amitābha").
In esoteric Buddhist texts, Amitābha is often calledAmṛta (甘露, or 甘露王, lit. sweet-dew king).[4]
In Tibetan, Amitābha is calledའོད་དཔག་མེད་Wylie: 'od dpag med,THL:Öpakmé and Amitāyus is translated asཚེ་དཔག་མེད་Wylie:tshe dpag med,THL:Tsépakmé.
Apart from these standard names, numerous other sources contain other names of Amitāyus. Alternative names include: Aparimitāyus (Unlimited Life), Aparimitāyur-jñāna (Unlimited Life and Wisdom), Vajra-āyuṣa (Vajra Life), Dundubhisvara-rāja,Amṛta-dundubhisvara-rāja (King of the Drum of Immortality) and Aparimitāyurjñānasuviniścitatejorāja (The Blazing King Who Is Completely Certain of Immeasurable Longevity and Wisdom).[91][92][93]
A sculpture of the Japanese itinerant monkKūya reciting the nembutsu. Each Chinese characters of the Name is represented by a smallAmida figure emerging from his mouth
Pure Land Buddhism places profound significance on "the Name" (Ch: 名号 mínghào, Jp: myōgō) of Amitābha. The Name is central to Pure Land doctrine and practice (being the core ofnianfo/nembutsu practice in most of Asia. According to patriarchDaochuo, the Name is the essence of Amitābha Buddha's Vow to save all sentient beings.[94] According to the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Vows in theInfinite Life Sutra, Amida vowed that his Name would be praised by all Buddhas and that anyone who recites it with faith will be assured of birth in the Pure Land. According to Pure Land figures likeTanluan andShinran, the Name is not merely a conventional label or word, but embodies the totality of Amida's virtue, wisdom, and compassion. Since the Buddha infused the Name with all of his power and virtues, it is the most accessible means for ordinary beings to tap into Buddha'sother-power and attain liberation.[95][96]
The Name is deeply intertwined withThusness (Dharmakaya) and serves as a bridge between the ultimate reality of Buddhahood and the limited experience of ordinary beings. Tanluan and Shinran emphasized that the Name is not an empty linguisticsignifier but the very manifestation of Amida's Wisdom and Compassion. It is indeed Amitābha himself in the form of sound. Through the Name, Amida communicates with sentient beings, making his presence tangible and accessible. Shinran further elaborated that the Name is inseparable from the Dharma-nature itself, meaning that reciting "Namu-Amida-Butsu" is not just an act of devotion but a direct engagement with the ultimate truth.[95][96]
The Name also plays a crucial role in the awakening of faith (shinjin) in practitioners. Pure Land teachers like Shinran taught that faith is not something generated by the individual but is received through the Name. The Name acts as the medium through which Amida's compassion is transferred to the practitioner, transforming their mind and aligning it with the Dharma. This process underscores the Name's dual function: it is both the means of salvation and the expression of Amida's Vow.[95] To illustrate the power of the name, the Chinese patriarch Tanluan compares the Buddha's name to a bright light which can instantly illuminate a pitch black room, even if that room has been dark for eons.[97] Tanluan also writes:
If all who hear the meritorious Name of Amitabha but have faith in, and take joy in what they have heard, and if for one instant of thought they have utmost sincerity, and if they transfer these merits and desire rebirth, then they shall attain rebirth [in the pure land].[98]
TheLonger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra contains twelve or more epithets of Amitābha Buddha which are also called "Buddha's lights".[99][100] Vasubandhu'sTreatise on Birth in the Pure Land references these "lights of Amitābha".[99] These "Buddha lights" were seen as manifestations of Amitābha Buddha in Chinese Buddhism.[100] The recitation of these names were also taught by Chinese Pure Land figures likeShandao.[101]
There are various sets of these names found in different sources, which includeInfinite Life Sutra, theMahāratnakūṭa Sūtra (Dà bǎo jī jīng), and theTathāgatācintyaguhyanirdeśa Sūtra.[100]
When depicted in the standing position (upon a lotus pedestal), Amitābha is often shown with left arm bare and extended downward with thumb and forefinger touching, with the right hand facing outward also with thumb and forefinger touching. Thismudrā is called the "welcoming mudrā" (Jp:raigō), and it is a gesture welcoming all beings to Amida's Pure Land.[103] It signifies that wisdom (symbolized by the raised hand) is accessible to even the lowest beings, while the outstretched hand shows that Amitābha's compassion is directed at the lowest beings, who cannot save themselves.
When depicted in the sitting posture, Amitābha is often shown displaying the meditation mudrā (thumbs touching and fingers together as in the Great Buddha of Kamakura atKōtoku-in or welcoming mudrā. The earth-touching mudrā (right hand pointed downward over the right leg, palm inward) is reserved for a seatedShakyamuni Buddha alone.
Amitābha is said to display 84,000 auspicious and distinguishing marks reflecting his many virtues.[104] Some common marks seen in art include rays of light (vyāmaprabhā), an aureole or large halo (prabhāvalī), hisurna (spiral or circle in between his eyebrows), and a circular symbol (sometimes a swastika) on his chest (this is calledŚrīvatsa).[8]
When not depicted alone, Amitābha is often portrayed with two assistantbodhisattvas, usuallyAvalokiteśvara on the right andMahāsthāmaprāpta on the left. This iconography is known as an "Amitābha triad." The Amitābha triad likely originated in Gandhara, and is especially common inChinese,Japanese, andKorean art.[105][8]
According to Katsumi Tanabe,Gandhāran Buddhist art also depicted Amitābha in four other lesser known triads:[8]
Maitreya/Amida/Avalokitasvara (the most numerous triad)
In Tibetan Buddhism, Mahāsthāmaprāpta is commonly replaced withVajrapani orPadmasambhava. Some East Asian depictions also show Amitābha with a larger group of bodhisattvas, either the eight greatbodhisattvas or a host of twenty five bodhisattvas. Descent paintings (known as "raigo" in Japanese) showing Amitabha with a host of bodhisattvas coming to lead the dying to the pure land often show twenty five bodhisattvas playing music.
In the artistic traditions ofVajrayana Buddhism, a distinction is made between Amitāyus (Buddha of Infinite Life) and Amitābha (Buddha of Infinite Light). These two figures are seen as identical in East Asian Buddhism and some sutras use both names interchangeably. However, in Tibetan Buddhism, they are iconographically distinct. Amitāyus is depicted in fine clothes, an ornate crown, and jewels. Amitābha is depicted in simple monk's clothing (kasaya).[106]
^Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990.The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra, p. 1. Albany: State University of New York Press.
^Jōdo Shinshū Translation Group (2020-11-23)."The Sutra on Amida Buddha".jodoshinshu.faith. Retrieved2025-03-04.
^abTanaka, Kenneth K. 1990.The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra, p. 12. Albany: State University of New York Press.
^Harrison, Paul; Lenz, Timothy; Salomon, Richard (2018). "Fragments of a Gāndhārī Manuscript of the Pratyutpannabuddhasaṃmukhāvasthitasamādhisūtra".Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies.41:117–143.doi:10.2143/JIABS.41.0.3285740.
^abcdSchopen, Gregory. "The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Character of Early Mahāyāna in India". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 10 (1987): 99–137
^Gomez, Luis, trans. (1996),The Land of Bliss: The Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless Light: Sanskrit and Chinese Versions of the Sukhavativyuha Sutras, p. 127. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Gomez calls this edition a "more "free" translation" in the preface
^abcPas, Julian F. (1995).Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching, pp. 14-16. Albany, State University of New York Press,ISBN0-7914-2520-7
^Andre Bareau,Les sectes bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule (Ecole Fransaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1955), Chapitre I 'Les Mahasanghika', pp. 55-74.
^abPas, Julian F. (1995).Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching, pp. 26-30. Albany, State University of New York Press,ISBN0-7914-2520-7
^Tanaka, Kenneth K. (1990).The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 14.
^Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990.The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra, p. 103. Albany: State University of New York Press.
^Gadjin, Nagao, and Hirano Umeyo. “On the Theory of Buddha-Body (Buddha-Kāya).”The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 6, no. 1, 1973, pp. 25–53.JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44361355. Accessed 29 Sept. 2024.
^Harvard Heller, N. (2014). Buddha in a box: The materiality of recitation in contemporary chinese buddhism. Material Religion, 10(3), 294–314. https://doi.org/10.2752/175183414X14101642921384
^Buswell, Robert E. (2004).Encyclopedia of Buddhism. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 249–250.ISBN978-0-02-865718-9.
^Jones, Charles B. (2021).Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice, pp. 107–118. Shambhala Publications,ISBN978-1-61180-890-2.
^Jones, Charles B. (2021).Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice, pp. 123–135. Shambhala Publications,ISBN978-1-61180-890-2.
^Jones, Charles B. (2021).Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice, pp. 136–150. Shambhala Publications,ISBN978-1-61180-890-2.
^abHalkias, Georgios T. (2012).Luminous Bliss: A Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet, pp. xxv–xxvii University of Hawaii Press.
^Halkias, Georgios T. (2012).Luminous Bliss: A Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet, p. 109. University of Hawaii Press.
^Halkias, Georgios T. (2012).Luminous Bliss: A Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet, p. xxx University of Hawaii Press.
^Payne, Richard Karl; Tanaka, Kenneth Kazuo (2004).Approaching the Land of Bliss: Religious Praxis in the Cult of Amitabha, p. 17. University of Hawaii Press.
^Payne, Richard Karl; Tanaka, Kenneth Kazuo (2004).Approaching the Land of Bliss: Religious Praxis in the Cult of Amitabha, p. 25. University of Hawaii Press.
^Tibet is My Country: Autobiography of Thubten Jigme Norbu, Brother of the Dalai Lama as told to Heinrich Harrer, p. 121. First published in German in 1960. English translation by Edward Fitzgerald, published 1960. Reprint, with updated new chapter, (1986): Wisdom Publications, London.ISBN0-86171-045-2.
^Jōji Atone.Shan-tao: His Life and Thought, p. 83. University of Wisconsin, 1989.
^"Sukhavativyuha, Vistaramatrika [longer version]".gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de. Based on the ed. by P.L. Vaidya: Mahāyāna-sūtra-saṃgrahaḥ, Part 1) Darbhanga : The Mithila Institute, 1961, pp. 221-253. (Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, 17). Retrieved2024-08-09.
^National Institutes for Cultural Heritage (Japan)."e-Museum - Amitabha Buddha".emuseum.nich.go.jp. Retrieved2025-02-26.
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