InGreek mythology,Amalthea orAmaltheia (Ancient Greek:Ἀμάλθεια) is the figure most commonly identified as the nurse ofZeus during his infancy. She is described either as anymph who raises the child on the milk of a goat, or, in some accounts from theHellenistic period onwards, as the goat itself.
As early as thearchaic period, there exist references to the "horn of Amalthea" (known in Latin as thecornucopia), a magical horn said to be capable of producing endless amounts of any food or drink desired. In a narrative attributed to the mythical poetMusaeus, and likely dating to the 4th century BC or earlier, Amalthea, a nymph, nurses the infant Zeus and owns a goat which is terrifying in appearance. After Zeus reaches adulthood, he uses the goat's skin as a weapon in his battle against theTitans. Amalthea is first described as a goat by the 3rd-century BC poetCallimachus, who presents a rationalised version of the myth, in which Zeus is fed on Amalthea's milk.Aratus, also writing in the 3rd century BC, identifies Amalthea with the starCapella, and describes her as "Olenian" (the meaning of which is unclear).
There is disagreement among scholars as to when the tale of Zeus's upbringing was first merged with that of the magical horn. The first author to explicitly combine them is the Roman poetOvid (1st century BC/AD), whose story of Zeus's nursing weaves together elements from multiple earlier accounts. A passage from ascholium (or commentary) on Aratus's account has been taken as evidence that the two myths may have been connected prior to Ovid. Another version of Zeus's childhood is found in the 2nd-century ADFabulae, in which Amalthea hides the infant in a tree and gathers theKouretes to dance noisily, so that the child's crying cannot be heard. Other accounts of Zeus's upbringing describe Amalthea as being related toMelisseus, the king ofCrete, including anOrphic version of the story.
Among the relatively few surviving representations of Amalthea in ancient art are a 2nd-century AD marble relief which depicts her as a nymph feeding Zeus out of a large cornucopia, and multiple coins and medallions from theRoman Empire. In modern art, she has been the subject of 17th- and 18th-century works by sculptors such asGian Lorenzo Bernini andPierre Julien and painters such asJacob Jordaens.
The etymology ofAmáltheia (Ἀμάλθεια) is unknown.[2] While 19th-century scholars proposed various derivations,[3] these were dismissed in the early 20th century byAlfred Chilton Pearson, who suggested that the name may be related toamalós (ἀμαλός,'soft, tender, weak') andamálē (ἀμάλη,'sheaf, bundle').[4] The verbamaltheúein (ἀμαλθεύειν,'to nurture'),[5] previously attested only by theLexicon ofHesychius of Alexandria (5th or 6th century AD) and theEtymologicum Magnum (12th century AD), was thought byOtto Gruppe in 1906 to derive from Amalthea's name; Gruppe's suggestion was refuted by the word's discovery in afragment, published the following year, from the writings of the 5th-century BC tragedianSophocles.[6] According to Pearson, the two words should instead be understood as having existed alongside each other, with this notion of "abundance" or "plenty" being embodied in certain mythological figures.[7]
InHesiod'sTheogony, an 8th-century BC poem which contains the earliest known account of Zeus's birth,[8] there is no mention of Amalthea.[9] Hesiod, does, however, describe the newborn Zeus as being taken to a cave on "the Aegean mountain" inCrete,[10] which some scholars interpret as meaning "Goat's Mountain", seen as a reference to the story of Amalthea;[11] Richard Wyatt Hutchinson takes this term as possible indication that the tradition in which Amalthea is a goat, though only attested from theHellenistic period, may have existed earlier than that of her as a nymph.[12] Other scholars, however, includingM. L. West, see no reason to view Hesiod's name for the mountain as a reference to Amalthea.[13] According toLewis Richard Farnell, Amalthea may have been associated, at some point early on, with the Cretan goddessDictynna, whose name is likely related toMount Dicte (sometimes considered the birthplace of Zeus).[14]
The "horn of Amalthea", referred to in Latin literature as thecornucopia,[16] is a magical horn generally described as being able to produce an inexhaustible supply of any food or drink desired.[17] The tale of this horn seems to have originated as an independent tradition to the raising of Zeus, though it is uncertain when the two merged.[18] The "horn of Amalthea" is mentioned as early as thearchaic period by poets such asAnacreon andPhocylides (who both date to the 6th century BC),[19] and is commonly referenced in comedies, such as those byCratinus (5th century BC) andAristophanes (5th to early 4th centuries BC).[20] According to theBibliotheca of Apollodorus, the 5th-century BC mythographerPherecydes described the horn's ability to provide endless food and drink as desired, and considered it to belong to the nymph Amalthea.[21] In a lost poem by the 5th-century BC poetPindar,Heracles fought against the river-godAchelous (who battled him in the form of a bull) for the hand ofDeianeira, and during the fight Heracles pulled off one of Achelous's horns; the god then reclaimed his horn by trading it for the magical horn which he obtained from Amalthea, a daughter ofOceanus.[22] In the same passage in which he cites Pherecydes, Apollodorus (1st to 2nd centuries AD) retells this story, and describes the nymph Amalthea as the daughter of Haemonius, whose name, meaning "Thessalian", indicates that this Amalthea is separate to the nurse of Zeus.[23] In Apollodorus's account, Amalthea's horn is that of a bull (an element also mentioned by the 4th-to-3rd-century BC poetPhilemon),[24] seemingly a result of confusion with the bull's horn of Achelous,[25] while in other versions of the myth, told byDiodorus Siculus (1st century BC) andStrabo (1st century BC/AD), the horn of Amalthea is identified with that of Achelous.[26]
Amalthea is the figure most commonly described as the nurse of Zeus during his infancy,[27] and in this role is often considered to be a nymph.[28] In the account of Zeus's upbringing from the now-lost workEumolpia (likely composed in or before the 4th century BC),[29] which was attributed in antiquity to the mythical poetMusaeus, Amalthea was the nurse of the young Zeus, and a nymph.[30] According to a summary of theCatasterismi ofEratosthenes (written by an author referred to as "Pseudo-Eratosthenes"),[31] in the account attributed to Musaeus, Zeus's motherRhea gave him as a newborn child toThemis, who handed him over to the nymph Amalthea, who had the infant nursed by a she-goat.[32] Pseudo-Eratosthenes goes on to relate that this goat was the daughter ofHelios, and was so terrifying in appearance that theTitans, out of fear, askedGaia to hide her in a cave on Crete; Gaia complied, entrusting the goat to Amalthea.[33] After Zeus reaches adulthood, he receives an oracle advising him to use the goat's skin as a weapon in his war against the Titans (due to its terrifying nature).[34] According to theDe astronomia (a work of astral mythology likely composed in the 2nd-century AD),[35] which similarly recounts the narrative from Musaeus,[36] this weapon which Zeus uses against the Titans is theaegis.[37]
Various accounts of Zeus's upbringing rationalise Amalthea as a goat;[38] these versions start appearing in theHellenistic period.[39] The first author to describe her as a goat seems to have been the 3rd-century BC poetCallimachus,[40] who relates that, after Zeus's birth, the god is taken by theArcadian nymphNeda to a hidden location in Crete, where he is reared by the nymphAdrasteia, and fed the milk of Amalthea.[41] In his description of Zeus suckling Amalthea's breast, Callimachus employs the wordmazón (μαζόν), which typically denotes the breast of a human (rather than the teat of a goat), thereby, according to Susan Stephens, "call[ing] attention to his own rationalizing variant of the myth".[42] According to ascholium (or commentary) on Callimachus's account, from one of Amalthea's horns flowsambrosia, and from the other comes nectar.[43] In the version of Zeus's infancy from Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), the child is reared by nymphs (who are not named) on the milk of the goat Amalthea, as well as honey,[44] and adds that Amalthea is the source of Zeus's epithetaigíokhos (αἰγίοχος,'aegis-bearing').[45] An account which is largely the same as that given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes is found in a scholium on theIliad, though the scholiast describes Amalthea herself as the goat which terrifies the Titans (rather than the owner of the goat).[46]
In Greek works of astral mythology, the tale of the goat who nurses the young Zeus is adapted to provide anaition (or origin myth) for certain stars.[47] The 3rd-century BC poetAratus, in his description of the constellation of the Charioteer (Auriga) and the surrounding stars, explains that the star of the Goat (Capella) sits above the Charioteer's left shoulder.[48] He identifies this goat with Amalthea,[49] describing it as the goat who suckled the young Zeus;[50] in this passage, he employs the wordmazón for the goat's breast, similarly to Callimachus,[51] who may be his source for this information.[52] He also states that the "interpreters of Zeus" refer to her as the Olenian goat, which may be an allusion to a version in which Zeus is reared, by a goat, nearOlenos inAchaea, or to the location of the star, on the arm (ōlénē,ὠλένη) of Auriga;[53] alternatively, it may indicate that the Goat's father isOlenus (the son ofHephaestus),[54] an interpretation given by a scholium on the passage.[56] At the end of the account given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes, the text contains alacuna (or gap), where he would have described Zeus placing the goat among the stars;[57] in theCatasterismi, the god would have performed this action for her role in his defeat of the Titans, and her nursing of him during his youth.[58]
According toRobert Fowler, the nursing of Zeus by a goat and the originally independent tradition of the magical horn had become "entangled" by the time of Pherecydes;[59]Jan N. Bremmer, however, states that it was not untilOvid (who was active around the beginning of the 1st century AD) that the two tales were brought together.[38] In Ovid's account, presented in hisFasti,[60] Amalthea is once again the owner of the goat,[61] and is described as anaiad who lives onMount Ida.[62] She hides the young Zeus in Crete (away from his father,Cronus), where he is suckled by the she-goat.[63] On one occasion, the goat snaps off one of its horns on a tree, and Amalthea, filling the broken horn with fruit, brings it back to the young Zeus;[64] this tale, an aition for the cornucopia, appears to be the earliest attempt at providing an origin for the object.[34] Zeus later places the goat (and perhaps her broken-off horn)[65] in the heavens, with the goat becoming the star Capella.[66] Ovid's narrative brings together elements from multiple earlier accounts, which he intertwines in an episode characterised by John Miller as a "miniature masterpiece".[67] His source for the narrative's overall outline appears to be Eratosthenes: he describes Amalthea as a nymph,[68] and seemingly alludes to Zeus's war with the Titans,[69] though he notably departs from the Eratosthenic story by describing the goat as 'beautiful' (formosa) and possessing majestic horns.[70] Ovid harks back to Aratus's account in the first words of his narrative, which mirror the opening phrase of the Aratean story,[71] as well as through his description of the goat as "Olenian".[72] Barbara Boyd also sees in Ovid's narrative significant influence from the Callimachean account of Zeus's infancy.[73]
Though Ovid'sFasti is the first known source to clearly narratively merge the tradition of Zeus's upbringing with that of Amalthea's magical horn, Miller points to a (somewhat garbled) scholium on Aratus as evidence that the two tales may have already been connected by the time of Ovid.[74] The scholiast, who appears to mix two differing versions, one in which Zeus's nurse is an Arcadian woman,[75] and another in which she is a goat, describes the horn of this nurse as being Amalthea's horn, which he associates with the constellation of the Goat; Amalthea's horn here would seem to be the magical horn of plenty, though the two are not explicitly identified.[76] Miller also points, as possible further evidence of a tradition in which the two tales were connected, to the scholium on Callimachus, whose mention of ambrosia and nectar flowing from the goat's horns may have been related to the young Zeus's nourishment, and a 2nd-century AD marble relief, which seems to show Amalthea feeding the young Zeus from a large cornucopia.[77]
In the account of Zeus's infancy in theFabulae (a mythological handbook attributed toHyginus, and likely composed in the 2nd century AD),[78] his elder siblings are seemingly not swallowed (as they are in Hesiod'sTheogony), though Rhea still gives Cronus a stone in place of Zeus, which he consumes.[79] Upon realising the deception, Cronus scours the earth for his son, while Hera carries the infant to Crete, where she entrusts him to Amalthea,[80] who appears to be a nymph in this account.[81] To keep Zeus from his father, Amalthea hides him in a cradle, which she places in a tree, such that he "could not be found in the sky, on earth, or on the sea".[82] To prevent Cronus from hearing the cries of the young child, Amalthea brings together theKouretes, and hands them shields and spears, which she instructs them to clang noisily around where the child lies.[84] According toMartin Nilsson, this account is likely not the creation of Hyginus himself, and probably has some basis in an association of the young Zeus with tree worship.[85] Later in the work, Hyginus mentionsAlthaea,[86] whichM. L. West interprets as referring to Amalthea,[87] and describes her as one of the daughters of Ocean (here seemingly meaningOceanus),[88] alongside Adrasteia and Ida.[89] He adds that these three are alternatively considered daughters ofMelisseus, the king of Crete, and nurses of Zeus.[91]
The goat Amalthea suckles the infant Zeus, behind twoKouretes who dance raucously. Marble relief from the 2nd century AD,Capitoline Museum.[92]
Other versions of Zeus's upbringing also describe Amalthea as being related to Melisseus, the king of Crete.[93] In the account given by the late-1st-century BC writerDidymus, the infant Zeus is raised by the nymphs Amalthea andMelissa, the daughters of Melisseus, who feed him honey and the milk of a goat.[94] In Apollodorus's version of Zeus's infancy, the god is born in a cave on CretanMount Dicte, where he is fed on the milk of Amalthea; he is raised by the nymphs Adrasteia andIda, the daughters of Melisseus, and protected by the Kouretes, who noisily clang their spears and shields.[95] Similarly, in theDe astronomia, Amalthea is the she-goat who sucklesJupiter (theRoman equivalent of Zeus), and she is owned by his nurses, the daughters of Melisseus.[96] Amalthea also seems to have been associated with Melisseus in the now-lostOrphic Rhapsodies, a 1st-century BC or 1st-century ADtheogonic poem which was attributed to the mythical poetOrpheus in antiquity.[97]Luc Brisson and M. L. West write that, in the poem, Amalthea was the wife of Melisseus (a detail transmitted by the 5th-century ADNeoplatonist philosopherHermias),[98] and that her daughters by him, the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, raised the young Zeus in the cave ofNight, while the Kouretes guarded the entrance of the cave.[99] InAlberto Bernabé [es]'s reconstruction of the poem, however, Zeus is raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida (still the daughters of Melisseus), and is fed on the milk of Amalthea, whom Bernabé describes as a "goat-nymph" (ninfa-cabra).[100] An Orphic work may have been the source for the version of Zeus's upbringing told by Apollodorus.[101]
Diodorus Siculus, in aeuhemerist reworking of Amalthea's myth,[102] describes her as an especially beautiful young woman, who is wed to Ammon, the king ofLibya; Ammon gifts to her a region of great fertility, which is the shape of a bull's horn, and which, taking its name from her, comes to be known as "Amalthea's Horn".[103] In this version, Amalthea and Ammon are also described as the parents ofDionysus.[104] The 1st-century BC Roman writerCicero, in aletter to his friendAtticus,[105] mentions anamaltheum, which was likely some form of shrine to Amalthea;[106] on his estate, Atticus had such a shrine, within which were illustrations of Amalthea's mythology, and Cicero, seeking to erect a similar structure on his land inArpinum, requests that Atticus provide him details of his own shrine and of Amalthea's mythology.[107] In a version from the 2nd-century AD Greek writerZenobius, when Zeus places the goat from his childhood among the stars (as the constellation known as the "heavenly goat"), he sets aside one of her horns, which he gifts to the nymphs who raised him.[108] TheDe astronomia, after its account of Jupiter's upbringing, states that, alongside Jupiter, the goat Amalthea also raisesAegipan ('Goat-Pan'),[109] andNonnus, a 5th-century AD Greek writer, describesPan as the shepherd of the goat Amalthea.[110]
There are relatively few surviving depictions of Amalthea inancient Greek andRoman art.[111] On a marble relief, which likely dates to the 2nd century AD, she is shown as a nymph, holding a large cornucopia out to the young Zeus, from which the infant eats.[112] The scene also includes a young Pan playing asyrinx, two goats, and an eagle and a snake sitting in a tree.[113] In this representation, Miller sees a number of parallels with Ovid's narrative, and he points to the relief as evidence that Amalthea's horn may have been part of the myth of Zeus's upbringing prior to Ovid, suggesting that Ovid and the artist who produced the relief may have been working from a shared source.[114] There exist several other representations of Amalthea as a nymph, though she is more commonly depicted as a goat.[115] As a goat, she is often shown suckling the young Zeus, or with the child mounted upon her back.[116] Amalthea is also found on coins and medallions from theRoman Empire, including those from the reigns ofTitus andGallienus.[117]
Pictured areJacques Jordaens'Jupiter and Amalthea (left), dating to around 1625–1650,[118] andPierre Julien'sAmalthea (right), dating to around 1786–1787.[119]
TheSeptuagint (dated to around the 2nd century BC) version of theBook of Job gives the name of the youngest daughter ofJob,Keren-happuch, asAmaltheías Kéras (Ἀμαλθείας Κέρας,'horn of Amalthea'), a name the Roman authorPliny the Elder explicitly identifies with the cornucopia.[120] In the 4th-century AD, the Christian bishopGregory of Nyssa writes that the text's usage of this term should not be taken as reason to believe in the mythical Greek tale of Amalthea, but that it is the text's way of emphasising the virtuous character and beautiful appearance of Job's daughter.[121]
In modern art, Amalthea was the subject ofa sculpture by theBaroque sculptorGian Lorenzo Bernini, which was among his first works, having been produced in 1615 or earlier.[122] The work depicts Amalthea as a goat, and shows the infant Jupiter drinking her milk, accompanied by a youngsatyr,[123] and was for some time thought to have been produced in antiquity.[124] The work, which was acquired byScipione Borghese in 1615, may have served a political purpose; it may have been used by theBorghese family as a way of portraying the appointment ofPope Paul V as ushering in a "new Golden Age", represented by the mythical figure of Amalthea, who personified abundance.[125] The myth of the goat Amalthea was a common subject for the Flemish painterJacob Jordaens,[126] whose paintings of the scene in some cases included elements such as a satyr playing a flute or tambourine, or a nymph holding a milk pitcher looking while at the audience.[127] A print bySchelte a Bolswert, after one of Jordaens' paintings of Amalthea, is accompanied by an inscription which presents a moral interpretation of the myth, explaining that Jupiter's adulterous ways are unsurprising, given he is raised by a goat and satyrs, an upbringing which leads him to emulate a "goat's nature".[128] Around 1786 to 1787, the French sculptorPierre Julien produced a work depicting Amalthea as a nymph, covered in drapery and accompanied by a goat;[129] when the sculpture was exhibited in 1791, it received high praise, attracting comparison from one critic with the classical Greek sculptures ofPraxiteles andPhidias.[130] Julien also produced a relief in which Amalthea is a she-goat, which depicts, in addition to the young Jupiter and several nymphs, a number of Corybantes shown dancing raucously.[131]
^Pearson, p. 60. He adds that the association of the horn of Amalthea with various deities suggests that Amalthea was "not a distinctively conceived personality".
^Grimal, s.v. Amalthea, p. 35 describes it as "most usual form of the story".
^West 1983, p. 5 suggests a date in the latter part of the 4th century BC, thoughBetegh, pp. 346–347, disagrees with West's assessment that the work was composed this late, and argues that content from the text was referenced in the work of the 4th-century BCEudemus of Rhodes.
^Musaeus fr. 8Diels (pp. 181–182) [=Eratosthenes,Catasterismi (Hard 2015, p. 44)]. TheCatasterismi are a lost work, and survive only through the epitome of the text written by Pseudo-Eratosthenes.
^Gantz, p. 41; Scholia D onHomer'sIliad, 15.229 (Dindorf, p. 72). This version also specifies that it is Themis who provides the oracle, directing Zeus to use the goat's skin. Part of the scholium's account also seems to have been preserved inP. Oxy. 3003 col. ii.15–19 (Parsons, p. 17); seeParsons, p. 19.
^LIMC, p. 582; Scholia onAratus, 164 (Kidd, p. 243 on line 164). Cf.Hyginus,De astronomia 2.13.5 (Hard 2015, p. 44), who describes Aix andHelice, nurses of Zeus, as daughters of Olenus.[55] For a more detailed discussion of possible explanations for this word, seeBömer, pp. 298–299 on line 113;Frazer 2015b, pp. 11–12;Boyd, p. 73 with n. 28.
^On the ambiguity of Ovid's Latin as to this detail, seeGee, p. 131 n. 17.
^Gee, p. 131;Boyle & Woodard, pp. 258 on lines 1.111–114, 259 on lines 5.127–128. According to Boyle and Woodard, the horn may become the constellationCapricornus.
^The initial phrase of Ovid's narrative isAb Iove surgat opus (rendered as "Begin the work with Jupiter" inFrazer's translation), while Aratus begins withἘκ Διὸς ἀρχώμεσθα ("Let us begin from Zeus").
^J. F. Miller, pp. 221–222. Miller also points to Ovid's choice to describe the goat as having two kids, which hints at the constellation of the Kids, mentioned by Aratus as sitting beside that of the goat (and as being her offspring).
^Boyd, p. 72. According to Boyd, in Ovid "makes Callimachus both the primary model and the focus of his narrative". In response,J. F. Miller, p. 218, argues that Boyd "downplays the extent of Ovid's engagement with Aratus here, and correspondingly somewhat overemphasizes the admittedly important Callimachean background".
^On the scholiast's apparent placement of the myth in Arcardia, seeGee, p. 134 n. 27.
^Gee, p. 134. According to Gee, "we can surmise this from our knowledge of the tradition recorded by Pherecydes" (though the horn is there part of a different story).
^J. F. Miller, p. 223. On this marble relief, see§ Iconography. For Miller's discussion of this representation, and its apparent parallels to Ovid's account, seeJ. F. Miller, pp. 223–225.
^Gantz, p. 41. In Hesiod'sTheogony, theTitanCronus swallows the first five of his children—Hestia,Demeter,Hera,Hades, andPoseidon—once each is born, and so, their mother,Rhea, gives Cronus a stone to swallow in place of their sixth child, Zeus. In theFabulae, instead of swallowing his children, Cronus hurls Poseidon below the seas, and casts Hades into theunderworld. Hera is also not swallowed, as she transports the newborn Zeus.
^Kerényi, p. 94. The Kouretes (also referred to as the Corybantes) are included in accounts of Zeus's infancy from as early as Callimachus, and are commonly described as performing their clangorous dance around the entrance to the cave in which the infant is nursed.[83]
^Fowler 2013, p. 323 n. 212;Brill's New Pauly Vol. 8, s.v. Melisseus. Hyginus also states that these three are "the ones that are called Dodonian Nymphs (others call them the Naiads)".[90]
^On this figure, seeBrill's New Pauly Vol. 8, s.v. Melisseus. According to Frazer's note 1 toApollodorus, 1.1.7 (Frazer 1921, pp. 6–9), "his name is probably due to an attempt to rationalize the story that the infant Zeus was fed by bees".
^Bernabé 2008, p. 315. Compare withMeisner, p. 219, who states that in the Rhapsodies Zeus is "nursed by a triad of nymphs: Ida, Adrasteia, and Amaltheia", andChrysanthou, p. 363, whose reconstruction of the poem, drawing here from Hermias, states that "Ide and Adrasteia protected Zeus who was hidden in Night's cave where he was also nurtured by Amaltheia".
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