TheAltai Mountains (/ɑːlˈtaɪ/ahl-TY) are amountain range inCentral Asia, whereRussia,China,Mongolia, andKazakhstan converge, and where the riversIrtysh andOb have their headwaters. The highest summit of the range isBelukha, whose summit reaches 4,506 m (14,783 ft) above sea level. Themassif merges with theSayan Mountains in the northeast, and gradually becomes lower in the southeast, where it merges into the high plateau of theGobi Desert. In the southwest, it is separated from the higherTian Shan range by theJunggar Basin. It spans from about 45° to 52° N and from about 84° to 99° E.
Altai is derived from underlying form *altañ "gold, golden" (compareOld Turkic 𐰞𐱃𐰆𐰣altun "gold, golden") with coda-ñ underlying the-n &-y correspondence among cognates in different Turkic languages & dialects (e.g.qōñ ~qoy "sheep",Qitan ~Qitay "Khitans", etc.), as well as in Mongolian.
The mountains are calledAltain nuruu (Алтайн нуруу) inKhalkha Mongolian,altai-yin niruɣu inChakhar Mongolian, andAltay tuular (Алтай туулар) in theAltay language. They are also calledAltaı taýlary orالتاي تاۋلارى inKazakh;Altajskije gory (Алтайские горы) inRussian;Altay Taghliri (ئالتاي تاغلىرى orАлтай Тағлири) inUyghur;ā'ěrtài shānmài inChinese (阿尔泰山脉simplified,阿爾泰山脈traditional, orاَعَرتَىْ شًامَىْ inXiao'erjing); andArteː shanmeː (Артэ Шанмэ) inDungan.
The Altai Mountains are a system of remote mountains in central Asia that cover an area of 845,000 km2 (326,000 sq mi). The mountains stretch for 2,525 km (1,569 mi) from northwest to southeast.[4]
In the north of the region is theSailughem Mountains, also known asKolyvan Altai, which stretch northeast from 49° N and 86° E towards the western extremity of theSayan Mountains in 51° 60' N and 89° E. Their mean elevation is 1,500–1,750 m (4,920–5,740 ft). Thesnow-line runs at 2,000 m (6,600 ft) on the northern side and at 2,400 m (7,900 ft) on the southern, and above it the rugged peaks tower some 1,000 m (3,300 ft) higher.Mountain passes across the range are few and difficult, the chief being theUlan-daban at 2,827 m (9,275 ft) (or 2,879 m (9,446 ft) according to Kozlov), and theChapchan-daban, at 3,217 m (10,554 ft), in the south and north respectively. On the east and southeast this range is flanked by the greatplateau of Mongolia, the transition being affected gradually by means of several minor plateaus, such asUkok (2,380 m (7,810 ft)) with Pazyryk Valley,Chuya (1,830 m (6,000 ft)),Kendykty (2,500 m (8,200 ft)),Kak (2,520 m (8,270 ft)), (2,590 m (8,500 ft)), and (2,410 m (7,910 ft)).[5]
This region is studded with large lakes, e.g.Uvs 720 m (2,360 ft) above sea level,Khyargas,Dorgon andKhar 1,170 m (3,840 ft), and traversed by variousmountain ranges, of which the principal are theTannu-Ola Mountains, running roughly parallel with the Sayan Mountains as far east as theKosso-gol, and theKhan Khökhii mountains, also stretching west and east.[5]
The north western and northern slopes of the Sailughem Mountains are extremely steep and difficult to access. On this side lies the highest summit of the range, the double-headedBelukha, whose summits reach 4,506 m (14,783 ft) and 4,400 m (14,400 ft) respectively, and give origin to severalglaciers andglaciokarst formations (30 km2 (12 sq mi) in aggregate area, as of 1911[update]).[5] Altaians call it Kadyn Bazhy, but is also called Uch-Sumer.[6]The second highest peak of the range is in Mongolian part namedKhüiten Peak. This massive peak reaches 4,374 m (14,350 ft). Numerous spurs, striking in all directions from the Sailughem mountains, fill up the space between that range and the lowlands ofTomsk. Such are theChuya Belki, having an average elevation of 2,700 m (8,900 ft), with summits from 3,500–4,177 m (11,483–13,704 ft) and several glaciers on their northern slope; theKatun Belki, which have a mean elevation of about 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and are mostly snow-clad; theKholzun range; theKorgon, highest pointMayak Shangina, the Talitsk and Selitsk ranges; as well as theTigeretsk Range.[5]
Several secondary plateaus of lower elevations are also distinguished by geographers. The Valley of theKatun river begins as a wild gorge on the south-west slope of Belukha; then, after a big bend, the river (600 km (370 mi) long) pierces theKatun Belki, and enters a wider valley, lying at an elevation of 600–1,100 m (2,000–3,600 ft), which it follows until it emerges from the Altai highlands to join theBiya River. Here, the two rivers merge to form theOb River.[5]
The next valley is that of theCharysh, which has theKorgon andTigeretsk Range on one side and theTalitsk andBaschelaksk Range (Бащелакский хребет) on the other. This, too, is very fertile. The Altai, seen from this valley, presents the most romantic scenes, including the small but deepKolyvan Lake at an altitude of 360 m (1,180 ft), which is surrounded by fantasticgranite domes and towers.[5]
Farther west the valleys of theUba, theUlba and theBukhtarma open south-westwards towards the Irtysh. The lower part of the first, like the lower valley of the Charysh, is thickly populated; in the valley of the Ulba is theRiddersk mine, at the foot of theIvanovsk Peak (2,060 m (6,760 ft)), clothed with alpine meadows. The valley of the Bukhtarma, which has a length of 320 km (200 mi), also has its origin at the foot of the Belukha and theKuitun peaks, and as it falls some 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in about 3,000 km (1,900 mi), from an alpine plateau at an elevation of 1,900 m (6,200 ft) to the Bukhtarma fortress (345 m (1,132 ft)), it offers the most striking contrasts of landscape and vegetation. Its upper parts abound in glaciers, the best known of which is theBerel, which descends from theBelukha. On the northern side of the range which separates the upper Bukhtarma from the upperKatun is the Katun glacier, which after two ice-falls widen out to 700–900 m (2,300–3,000 ft). From a grotto in this glacier bursts tumultuously the Katun river.[5]
The middle and lower parts of the Bukhtarma valley have been colonized since the 18th century by runaway Russian peasants, serfs, and religiousschismatics (Raskolniks), who created a free republic there onChinese territory; and after this part of the valley was annexed to Russia in 1869, it was rapidly colonized. The high valleys farther north, on the same western face of the Sailughem range, are but little known, their only visitors being Kyrgyz shepherds.[5]
Those ofBashkaus,Chulyshman, andChulcha, all three leading to the alpine lake ofTeletskoye (length, 80 km (50 mi); maximum width, 5 km (3.1 mi); elevation, 520 m (1,710 ft); area, 230.8 km2 (89.1 sq mi); maximum depth, 310 m (1,020 ft); mean depth, 200 m (660 ft)), are inhabited byTelengit people. The shores of the lake rise almost sheer to over 1,800 m (5,900 ft). From this lake issues the Biya, which joins the Katun atBiysk, and then meanders through the prairies of the north-west of the Altai.[5]
Farther north the Altai highlands are continued in the Kuznetsk district, which has a slightly different geological aspect, but belongs to the Altai system. But theAbakan River, which rises on the western shoulder of the Sayan mountains, belongs to the system of theYenisei. TheKuznetsk Ala-tau range, on the left bank of the Abakan, runs north-east into the government ofYeniseisk, while a complexus of mountains (Chukchut, Salair, Abakan) fills up the country northwards towards theTrans-Siberian Railway and westwards towards theOb.[5]
The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai, which separates theKhovd basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, is a true border-range, in that it rises in a steep and loftyescarpment from theDzungarian depression (470–900 m (1,540–2,950 ft)), but descends on the north by a relatively short slope to the plateau (1,150–1,680 m (3,770–5,510 ft)) of north-westernMongolia. East of 94° E the range is continued by a double series of mountain chains, all of which exhibit less sharply markedorographical features and are at considerably lower elevations. The slopes of the constituent chains of the system are inhabited principally by nomadicKyrgyz.[5]
The Altai-Sayan ecoregion is located at the intersection of the Central Asian and Siberian faunal provinces.
The Altai mountains are home to a diverse fauna, because of its different habitats, like steppes, northerntaigas and alpine vegetation. Steep slopes are home to theSiberian ibex (Capra sibirica), whereas the rareargali (Ovis ammon) is found on more gentle slopes. Deer are represented by five species:Altai wapiti (Cervus elaphus sibiricus),moose (Alces alces), forestreindeer (Rangifer tarandus valentinae),Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), andSiberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus). Moose and reindeer however, are restricted to the northern parts of the mountain range. Thewild boar (Sus scrofa) is found in the lower foothills and surrounding lowlands. Until recently, theMongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) was found in the Russian Altai mountains, more specifically in theChuya River steppe close to the Mongolian border. Large predators are represented bysnow leopards (Panthera uncia, syn.Uncia uncia),wolves (Canis lupus),Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), andbrown bears (Ursus arctos), in the northern parts also by thewolverine (Gulo gulo).[7] TheTien Shan dhole (Cuon alpinus hesperius) (a northwestern subspecies of theAsiatic wild dog) also lived there. Most species of the region are of Mongolian origin.[8] Thewestern Siberian eagle-owl can be found in the western part of the mountains.
Until the 20th century, theCaspian tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) was found in the southern parts of the Altai mountains, where it reachedLake Zaisan and theBlack Irtysh. Single individuals were also shot further north, for example close toBarnaul.[9] Closely related to the Caspian tiger is the extantAmur tiger, which has thetaxonomic namePanthera tigris altaica.[10]
Thewisent was present in the Altai mountains until theMiddle Ages, perhaps even until the 18th century. Today, there is a small herd in a nursery in theAltai Republic.[11]
Moor frogs are near bodies of water as high up as 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in the Altai mountains.[12]
The Altai mountains have retained a remarkably stable climate, changing little since the last ice age.[13] In addition the mix of mammals has remained largely the same, with a few exceptions such as extinct mammoths, making it one of the few places on earth to retain an ice age fauna.[13]
The Altai mountains were home to theDenisovan branch ofhominids who were contemporaries ofNeanderthals and ofHomo sapiens (modern humans), descended from Hominids who reached Asia earlier than modern humans.[13] TheDenisova hominin, dated to 40,000 years ago, was discovered in theDenisova Cave of the Altai mountains in southern Siberia in 2008. Knowledge of the Denisovan humans derives primarily from DNA evidence and artifacts, as no complete skeletons have yet been recovered. DNA evidence has been unusually well preserved because of the low average temperature in the Denisova caves. Neanderthal bones and tools made byHomo sapiens have also been found in the Denisova Cave, making it the only place in the world where all three hominids are known to have lived.[13]
A dog-likecanid from 33,000 years ago was found in theRazboinichya Cave.[14][15] DNA analysis published in 2013 affirmed that it was more closely related to modern dogs than to wolves.[16]
Reconstruction of aSakaScythian, found in the kurgan Olon-Kurin-Gol 10 inPazyryk, Altai Mountains, Mongolia
TheAfanasievans are considered as the earliestherders of East Asia, who were instrumental in the establishment of the long tradition of pastoralism in Mongolia.[17] The Afanasevan population was descended from people who migrated c. 3700–3300 BCE across theEurasian Steppe from the pre-YamnayaRepin culture of theDon-Volga region.[18] In the Altai Mountains and to the southeast, Afanasievans seem to have coexisted with the early period of theChemurchek culture for some time.[19] The Afanasevo culture was replaced by the second wave ofIndo-European migrations from theAndronovo culture during late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[20] NumerousEastern Scythian remains have been found in an excellent state of preservation in the Altai mountains, with soft tissues such as skin and hair preserved.[21]
The Altai Mountains have been identified as being the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed theSeima-Turbino Phenomenon[22] which arose during theBronze Age around the start of the2nd millennium BC and led to a rapid and massive migration of peoples from the region into distant parts of Europe and Asia.
The area was part of theXiongnu Empire, theFirst Turkic Khaganate, theUyghur Empire, and theYeniseian Kyrgyzs. It was during this time that the local population became fullyTurkicized culturally and linguistically.[23] There is increasing evidence for a partial continuity from the eastern Scythians to theTurkic-speakers of the Altai region.[24]
Some historians believe that the Altai mountain region may have been the location whereskiing was born, however this remains disputed. Evidence to support the claims includes several cavepetroglyphs within the Altai Mountains in modern China that depict human figures on skis that are chasing after anibex. According to a study published by the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA) in 2016, this rock art was estimated to be from between 4,000 and 5,250 years ago, which consequently meant it may be just as old or possibly older than ancient skiing rock art and artefacts located in Scandinavia. However, dating petroglyphs accurately with current technology is very difficult. The oldest known text that describes skiing is from a Chinese text that dates to theWestern Han Dynasty (206 BC to 24 AD) and refers to skiers in the Altai Mountains.[25][26][27][28][29]
A vast area of 16,178 km2 (6,246 sq mi)2, which incorporates the Altai and Katun Natural Reserves,Lake Teletskoye, MountBelukha, and theUkok Plateau, this area is designated as aWorld Heritage Site (UNESCO), entitled theGolden Mountains of Altai. As stated in the UNESCO description of the site, "the region represents the most complete sequence of altitudinal vegetation zones in central Siberia, from steppe, forest-steppe, mixed forest, subalpine vegetation to alpine vegetation". While making its decision, UNESCO also cited Russian Altai's importance for preservation of the globally endangered mammals, such asSnow leopard,Altai argali, andSiberian ibex that live in these mountains.[30] TheUvs Nuur basin is also a protected site.
Violations of the protection status of Argali sheep and other species have been alleged, together with accusations of corruption, in theAltaigate Scandal. The incident arose from the death of several Russian VIPs in a helicopter crash early in 2009, purportedly on a poaching excursion.
The Siberian Altai represents the northernmost region affected by the tectonic collision of India into Asia. Extensive fault systems run through the area, including theKurai fault zone and the recently identifiedTashanta fault zone. These fault systems are typically thrusts or right lateralstrike-slip faults, some of which are tectonically active. Rock types in the mountains are typicallygranites and metamorphicschists, and some are highly sheared near to fault zones.
Geologist Victor R. Baker "has discovered past cataclysmic floods in the Altai Mountains of Siberia" from "an even larger glacial lake" than Lake Missoula, which was once thought to have been "the largest ice-dammed lake in the world".[31]
Althoughearthquakes are generally rare occurrences, on September 27, 2003, alarge earthquake measuringMW 7.3 occurred in theChuya Basin area to the south of the Altai region. This earthquake and itsaftershocks devastated much of the region, causing $10.6 million in damage (USGS) and wiping out the village ofBeltir.
^Graeme, Worboys (2010).Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide. Earthscan. p. 247.ISBN978-1-84407-603-1.The population of the Altai frontier regions is mostly represented by indigenous ethnic minorities of semi nomadic stockbreeders: Kazakhs, Altais (Telenghets), Tuvins, Dyurbets, and Ugyurs.
^Olson, James Stuart (1994).An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Greenwood Press. p. 32.ISBN978-0-313-27497-8.The traditional Altai economy revolved around breeding cattle and hunting. They also bred deer and harvested the animals for their antlers, which were exported to China for use in the manufacture of folk medicines.
^Argent, Gala (2011)."2".At Home, with the Good Horses: Relationality, Roles, Identity and Ideology in Iron Age Inner Asia (PhD). University of Leicester. RetrievedJanuary 1, 2023.
^John Eliot Allen, Marjorie Burns, and Scott Burns,Cataclysms on the Columbia: The Great Missoula Floods, revised 2nd edition (Portland, OR: Ooligan Press/Portland State University, 2009), pp. 78, 108.
1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. 2State with limited international recognition.
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