Analphabet is awriting system that uses a standard set of symbols, calledletters, to represent particular sounds in a spoken language. Specifically,letters largely correspond tophonemes as the smallest sound segments that can distinguish one word from another in a given language.[1] Not all writing systems represent language in this way: asyllabary assigns symbols to spokensyllables, whilelogographies assign symbols towords,morphemes, or other semantic units.[2][3]
The first letters were invented inAncient Egypt to serve as an aid in writingEgyptian hieroglyphs; these are referred to asEgyptian uniliteral signs bylexicographers.[4] This system was used until the 5th century AD,[5] and fundamentally differed by adding pronunciation hints to existing hieroglyphs that had previously carried no pronunciation information. Later on, thesephonemic symbols also became used to transcribe foreign words.[6] The first fully phonemic script was theProto-Sinaitic script, also descending from Egyptian hieroglyphs, which was later modified to create thePhoenician alphabet. The Phoenician system is considered the first true alphabet and is the ultimate ancestor of many modern scripts, includingArabic,Cyrillic,Greek,Hebrew,Latin, and possiblyBrahmic.[7][8][9][10]
Corresponding letters in the Phoenician and Latin alphabets
Peter T. Daniels distinguishestrue alphabets—which use letters to represent bothconsonants andvowels—from bothabugidas andabjads, which only need letters for consonants. Abugidas represent them withdiacritics added to letters, while abjads generally lack vowel indicators altogether. In this narrower sense, theGreek alphabet was the first true alphabet;[11][12] it was originally derived from thePhoenician alphabet, which was an abjad.[13]
Alphabets usually have a standard ordering for their letters. This makes alphabets a useful tool incollation, as words can be listed in a well-defined order—commonly known asalphabetical order. This also means that letters may be used as a method of "numbering" ordered items. Some systems demonstrateacrophony, a phenomenon where letters have been given names distinct from their pronunciations. Systems with acrophony include Greek,Arabic,Hebrew, andSyriac; systems without include theLatin alphabet.
Etymology
The English wordalphabet came intoMiddle English from theLate Latin wordalphabetum, which in turn originated in the Greekἀλφάβητοςalphábētos; it was made from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet,alpha (α) andbeta (β).[14] The names for the Greek letters, in turn, came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet:aleph, the word forox, andbet, the word forhouse.[15]
TheAncient Egyptian writing system had a set of some24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals,[16] which are glyphs that provide one sound.[17] These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides forlogograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.[6] The script was used a fair amount in the 4th century AD.[18] However, after pagan temples were closed down, it was forgotten in the 5th century until the discovery of theRosetta Stone.[5] There was alsocuneiform, primarily used to write several ancient languages, includingSumerian.[19] The last known use of cuneiform was in 75 AD, after which the script fell out of use.[20]In theMiddle Bronze Age, an apparently alphabetic system known as theProto-Sinaitic script appeared in Egyptian turquoise mines in theSinai Peninsulac. 1840 BC, apparently left by Canaanite workers.Orly Goldwasser has connected the illiterate turquoise miner graffiti theory to the origin of the alphabet.[9] In 1999, American EgyptologistsJohn andDeborah Darnell discovered an earlier version of this first alphabet at theWadi el-Hol valley. The script dated toc. 1800 BC and shows evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated toc. 2000 BC, strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had developed about that time.[21] The script was based on letter appearances and names, believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs.[7] This script had no characters representing vowels. Originally, it probably was a syllabary—a script where syllables are represented with characters—with symbols that were not needed being removed. The best-attested Bronze Age alphabet isUgaritic, invented inUgarit before the 15th century BC. This was an alphabeticcuneiform script with 30 signs, including three that indicate the following vowel. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit in 1178 BC.[22]
TheSouth Arabian alphabet, a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which theGeʽez script was descended. Abugidas are writing systems with characters comprising consonant–vowel sequences. Alphabets without obligatory vowels are calledabjads, with examples being Arabic, Hebrew, andSyriac. The omission of vowels was not always a satisfactory solution due to the need of preserving sacred texts. "Weak" consonants are used to indicate vowels. These letters have a dual function since they can also be used as pure consonants.[24][25]
The Proto-Sinaitic script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with a limited number of signs instead of using many different signs for words, in contrast to cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, andLinear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script,[7][8] and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for traders to learn. Another advantage of the Phoenician alphabet was that it could write different languages since it recorded words phonemically.[26]
The Phoenician script was spread across the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians.[8] The Greek alphabet was the first in which vowels had independent letterforms separate from those of consonants. The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in Greek to represent vowels. TheLinear B syllabary, used byMycenaean Greeks from the 16th century BC, had 87 symbols, including five vowels. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, causing many different alphabets to evolve from it.[27]
European alphabets
Abecedarium latinum clasicum, or the Latin alphabet, used to write most languages of modern Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Oceania.
The Greek alphabet, inEuboean form, was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsulac. 800–600 BC giving rise to many different alphabets used to write theItalic languages, like theEtruscan alphabet.[28] One of these became the Latin alphabet, which spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their republic. After the fall of theWestern Roman Empire, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It came to be used for theRomance languages that descended from Latin and most of the other languages of western and central Europe. Today, it is the most widely used script in the world.[29]
The Etruscan alphabet remained nearly unchanged for several hundred years. Only evolving once theEtruscan language changed itself. The letters used for non-existent phonemes were dropped.[30] Afterwards, however, the alphabet went through many different changes. The final classical form of Etruscan contained 20 letters. Four of them are vowels—⟨a, e, i, u⟩—six fewer letters than the earlier forms. The script in its classical form was used until the 1st century AD. The Etruscan language itself was not used during theRoman Empire, but the script was used for religious texts.[31]
Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet haveligatures, a combination of two letters make one, such asæ inDanish andIcelandic and⟨Ȣ⟩ inAlgonquian; borrowings from other alphabets, such as thethorn⟨þ⟩ inOld English andIcelandic, which came from theFuthark runes;[32] and modified existing letters, such as theeth⟨ð⟩ of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modifiedd. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian and Italian, which uses the lettersj, k, x, y, andw only in foreign words.[33]
Another notable script isElder Futhark, believed to have evolved out of one of theOld Italic alphabets. Elder Futhark gave rise to other alphabets known collectively as theRunic alphabets. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from 100 AD to the late Middle Ages, being engraved on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions found on bone and wood occasionally appear. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet. The exception was for decorative use, where the runes remained in use until the 20th century.[34]
TheOld Hungarian script was the writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century, it once again became more and more popular.[35]
Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia descend from theBrahmi script, believed to be a descendant of Aramaic.[39]
European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad, as withUrdu andPersian, and sometimes as a complete alphabet, as withKurdish andUyghur.[40][41]
Other alphabets
Hangul
InKorea,Sejong the Great created theHangul alphabet in 1443. Hangul is a unique alphabet: it is afeatural alphabet, where the design of many of the letters comes from a sound's place of articulation, like P looking like the widened mouth and L looking like the tongue pulled in.[42][better source needed] The creation of Hangul was planned by the government of the day,[43] and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions, in the same way asChinese characters. This change allows for mixed-script writing, where one syllable always takes up one type space no matter how many letters get stacked into building that one sound-block.[44]
Bopomofo
Bopomofo, also referred to aszhuyin, is asemi-syllabary used primarily inTaiwan to transcribe the sounds ofStandard Chinese. Following the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and its adoption ofHanyu Pinyin in 1956, the use of bopomofo on the mainland is limited. Bopomofo developed from a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet, the phonemes ofsyllable initials are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary, the phonemes of thesyllable finals are not; each possible final (excluding themedial glide) has its own character, an example beingluan written as ㄌㄨㄢ (l-u-an). The last symbol ㄢ takes place as the entire final-an. While bopomofo is not a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to aromanization system, for aiding pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones.[45][better source needed]
The term "alphabet" is used bylinguists andpaleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense. In its broader sense, an alphabet is asegmental script at thephoneme level—that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In its narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script:abjads andabugidas. These three differ in how they treat vowels. Abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed. Abugidas are also consonant-based but indicate vowels withdiacritics, a systematic graphic modification of the consonants.[46] The earliest known alphabet using this sense is theWadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad. Its successor,Phoenician, is the ancestor of modern alphabets, includingArabic,Greek,Latin (via theOld Italic alphabet),Cyrillic (via the Greek alphabet), andHebrew (viaAramaic).[47][48]
AVenn diagram showing theGreek (left),Cyrillic (bottom) andLatin (right) alphabets, which share many of the sameletters, although they have different pronunciations
Examples of present-day abjads are theArabic andHebrew scripts;[49] true alphabets includeLatin, Cyrillic, and Korean hangul; and abugidas, used to writeTigrinya,Amharic,Hindi, andThai. TheCanadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida, rather than a syllabary, as their name would imply, because each glyph stands for a consonant and is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination gets represented by a separate glyph.[50]
All three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs.Ugaritic, for example, is essentially an abjad but has syllabic letters for/ʔa,ʔi,ʔu/[51][52] These are the only times that vowels are indicated.Coptic has a letter for/ti/.[53][better source needed]Devanagari is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels, though some traditions use अ as azero consonant as the graphic base for such vowels.[54][55]
The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example,Sorani Kurdish is written in theArabic script, which, when used for other languages, is an abjad. InKurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and whole letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with forced vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, theʼPhags-pa script of theMongol Empire was based closely on theTibetan abugida, but vowel marks are written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although shorta is not written, as in the Indic abugidas, The source of the term "abugida", namely theGeʽez script now used forAmharic andTigrinya, has assimilated into their consonant modifications. It is no longer systematic and must be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually becamelogographic.[56]
Thus the primarycategorisation of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. Fortonal languages, further classification can be based on their treatment of tone. Though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load,[57] as inSomali and many other languages of Africa and the Americas.[58] Most commonly, tones are indicated by diacritics, which is how vowels are treated in abugidas, which is the case forVietnamese (a true alphabet) andThai (an abugida). In Thai, the tone is determined primarily by a consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In thePollard script, an abugida, vowels are indicated by diacritics. The placing of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone.[41] More rarely, a script may have separate letters for tones, as is the case forHmong andZhuang.[59] For many, regardless of whether letters or diacritics get used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas. InZhuyin, not only is one of the tones unmarked; but there is a diacritic to indicate a lack of tone, like thevirama of Indic.[citation needed]
Alphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters; this is forcollation—namely, for listing words and other items inalphabetical order.[60][61]
Latin alphabets
The ordering of theLatin alphabet (ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ), which derives from the Northwest Semitic "Abgad" order,[62] is already well established. Although, languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters (such as the Frenché,à, andô) and certain combinations of letters (multigraphs). In French, these are not considered to be additional letters for collation. However, inIcelandic, the accented letters such asá,í, andö are considered distinct letters representing different vowel sounds from sounds represented by their unaccented counterparts. In Spanish,ñ is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such asá andé are not. Thell andch were also formerly considered single letters and sorted separately afterl andc, but in 1994, the tenth congress of theAssociation of Spanish Language Academies changed the collating order so thatll came to be sorted betweenlk andlm in the dictionary andch came to be sorted betweencg andci; those digraphs were still formally designated as letters, but in 2010 theReal Academia Española changed it, so they are no longer considered letters at all.[63][64]
In German, words starting withsch- (which spells the German phoneme/ʃ/) are inserted between words with initialsca- andsci- (all incidentally loanwords) instead of appearing after the initialsz, as though it were a single letter, which contrasts several languages such asAlbanian, in whichdh-,ë-,gj-,ll-,rr-,th-,xh-, andzh-, which all represent phonemes and considered separate single letters, would follow the letters⟨d, e, g, l, n, r, t, x, z⟩ respectively, as well as Hungarian and Welsh. Further, German words with anumlaut get collated ignoring the umlaut as—contrary toTurkish, which adopted thegraphemesö andü, and where a word liketüfek would come aftertuz, in the dictionary. An exception is the German telephone directory, where umlauts are sorted likeä=ae since names such asJäger also appear with the spellingJaeger and are not distinguished in the spoken language.[65]
TheDanish andNorwegian alphabets end with⟨æ, ø, å⟩,[66][67] whereas the Swedish conventionally put⟨å, ä, ö⟩ at the end. However,⟨æ⟩ phonetically corresponds with⟨ä⟩, as does⟨ø⟩ and⟨ö⟩.[68]
Early alphabets
It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as theHanuno'o script, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used forcollation where a definite order is required.[69] However, a dozenUgaritic tablets from the 14th century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, theABCDE order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes inHebrew,Greek,Armenian,Gothic,Cyrillic, andLatin; the other,HMĦLQ, was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today inGeʽez.[70] Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years.[71][better source needed]
TheBrahmic family of alphabets used in India uses a unique order based onphonology: The letters are arranged according to how and where the sounds get produced in the mouth. This organization is present in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Koreanhangul, and even Japanesekana, which is not an alphabet.[73]
Acrophony was abandoned inLatin. It referred to the letters by adding a vowel—usually⟨e⟩, sometimes⟨a⟩ or⟨u⟩—before or after the consonant. Two exceptions wereY andZ, which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan. They were known asY Graeca "Greek Y" andzeta (from Greek)—this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages, as in the termzed for Z in all forms of English, other than American English.[76] Over time names sometimes shifted or were added, as indouble U forW, or "double V" in French, the English name for Y, and the Americanzee for Z. Comparing them in English and French gives a clear reflection of theGreat Vowel Shift: A, B, C, and D are pronounced/eɪ,biː,siː,diː/ in today's English, but in contemporary French they are/a,be,se,de/.[77] The French names (from which the English names got derived) preserve the qualities of the English vowels before the Great Vowel Shift. By contrast, the names of F, L, M, N, and S (/ɛf,ɛl,ɛm,ɛn,ɛs/) remain the same in both languages because "short" vowels were largely unaffected by the Shift.[78]
In Cyrillic, originally, acrophony was present using Slavic words. The first three words going, azŭ, buky, vědě, with the Cyrillic collation order being, А, Б, В. However, this was later abandoned in favor of a system similar to Latin.[79]
When an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language, anorthography generally comes into being, providing rules forspelling words, following the principle on which alphabets get based. These rules will map letters of the alphabet to thephonemes of the spoken language.[80] In a perfectlyphonemic orthography, there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker would always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling, and vice versa. However, this ideal is usually never achieved in practice. Languages can come close to it, such as Spanish andFinnish. Others, such as English, deviate from it to a much larger degree.[81]
The pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system. Writing systems have been borrowed for languages the orthography was not initially made to use. The degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies.[82]
Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways:
A language may represent a given phoneme by combinations of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are calleddigraphs, and three-letter groups are calledtrigraphs. German uses thetetragraphs (four letters) "tsch" for the phonemeGerman pronunciation:[tʃ] and (in a few borrowed words) "dsch" for[dʒ].[83]Kabardian also uses a tetragraph for one of its phonemes, namely "кхъу."[84] Two letters representing one sound occur in several instances in Hungarian as well (where, for instance,cs stands for [tʃ],sz for [s],zs for [ʒ],dzs for [dʒ]).[85]
A language may represent the same phoneme with two or more different letters or combinations of letters. An example ismodern Greek which may write the phonemeGreek pronunciation:[i] in six different ways:⟨ι⟩,⟨η⟩,⟨υ⟩,⟨ει⟩,⟨οι⟩, and⟨υι⟩.[86]
A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. For example, the spelling of the Thai word for 'beer'เบียร์ retains a letter for the final consonant /r/ present in the English word it borrows, but silences it.[87]
Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence, for example, insandhi.[88]
Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word.[89][better source needed]
A language may use different sets of symbols or rules for distinct vocabulary items, typically for foreign words, such as in the Japanesekatakana syllabary is used for foreign words, and there are rules in English for using loanwords from other languages.[90][91]
National languages sometimes elect to address the problem of dialects by associating the alphabet with the national standard. Some national languages likeFinnish,Armenian,Turkish, Russian,Serbo-Croatian (Serbian,Croatian, andBosnian), andBulgarian have a very regular spelling system with nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes.[92] Similarly, the Italian verb corresponding to 'spell (out),'compitare, is unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial, as Italian spelling is highly phonemic.[93] In standard Spanish, one can tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa, as phonemes sometimes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. French usingsilent letters,nasal vowels, andelision, may seem to lack much correspondence between the spelling and pronunciation. However, its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy.[94]
At the other extreme are languages such as English, where pronunciations mostly have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling consistently. For English, this is because theGreat Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography got established and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels.[95] However, even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling. Rules like this are usually successful. However, rules to predict spelling from pronunciation have a higher failure rate.[96]
Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo aspelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system. For example, Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-basedTurkish alphabet,[97] andKazakh changed from an Arabic script to a Cyrillic script due to the Soviet Union's influence. In 2021, it made a transition to the Latin alphabet, similar to Turkish.[98][99] The Cyrillic script used to be official in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan before they switched to the Latin alphabet. Uzbekistan is reforming the alphabet to use diacritics on the letters that are marked by apostrophes and the letters that are digraphs.[100][101]
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