By the end of the first decade of the 20th century, the major European powers were divided between theTriple Entente and theTriple Alliance. The Triple Entente was made up of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. The Triple Alliance was originally composed of Germany, Austria–Hungary, and Italy, but Italy remained neutral in 1914.[1] As the war progressed, each coalition added new members. Japan joined the Entente in 1914 and, despite proclaiming its neutrality at the beginning of the war, Italy also joined the Entente in 1915. The term "Allies" became more widely used than "Entente",[citation needed] although the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and Italy were also referred to as theQuadruple Entente and, together with Japan, as theQuintuple Entente.[2][3] The fiveBritish Dominions (Australia,Canada,New Zealand,Newfoundland, and theUnion of South Africa) all fought alongside the British. The colonies of Allied countries, such as theAmerican Philippines,Belgian Congo,British India,French Algeria, andJapanese Korea, were also used as a source of manpower by the colonial powers.
The United States joined near the end of the war in 1917 (the same year in which Russia withdrew from the conflict) as an "associated power" rather than an official ally. Primary reasons for why the United States joined the war include the unrestricted submarine warfare waged by Germany in the Atlantic, the revelation of theZimmermann telegram, and strong economic and political ties with the Allies. Other "associated members" of the Allies includedSerbia,Belgium,Montenegro,Asir,Nejd and Hasa,Portugal,Romania,Hejaz,Panama,Cuba,Greece,China,Siam,Brazil,Armenia,Luxembourg,Guatemala,Nicaragua,Costa Rica,Haiti,Liberia, andHonduras.[4] The treaties signed at theParis Peace Conference recognised the British Empire, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States as "the Principal Allied and Associated Powers";[5] France, the UK, Italy, and the US were also referred as the "Big Four" top powers of the war.[6]
When the war began in 1914, theCentral Powers were opposed by theTriple Entente, formed in 1907 when the agreement between the United Kingdom andRussia complemented existing agreements between the three powers.
Fighting commenced when Austria invadedSerbia on 28 July 1914, in response to theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to EmperorFranz Joseph I; this brought Serbia's allyMontenegro into the war on 9 August and it attacked the Austrian naval base atCattaro, modern Kotor.[7] At the same time, German troops carried out theSchlieffen Plan, entering neutralBelgium andLuxembourg; over 95% of Belgium was occupied but the Belgian Army held their lines on theYser Front throughout the war. This allowed Belgium to be treated as an Ally, in contrast to Luxembourg which retained control over domestic affairs but wasoccupied by the German military.
In the East, between 7 and 9 August the Russians entered GermanEast Prussia and AustrianEastern Galicia.Japan joined the Entente by declaring war on Germany on 23 August, then Austria on 25 August.[8] On 2 September, Japanese forces surrounded the GermanTreaty Port ofTsingtao (now Qingdao) in China and occupied German colonies in the Pacific, including theMariana,Caroline, andMarshall Islands.
Despite its membership of theTriple Alliance,Italy remained neutral until 23 May 1915 when it joined the Entente, declaring war on Austria but not Germany. On 17 January 1916,Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente;[9] this was offset when Germany declared war onPortugal in March 1916, whileRomania commenced hostilities against Austria on 27 August.[10]
On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war as a co-belligerent, along with the associated allies ofLiberia,Siam andGreece. After the 1917October Revolution, Russia left the Entente and agreed to a separate peace with the Central Powers with the signing of theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. Romania was forced to do the same in the May 1918Treaty of Bucharest but on 10 November, it repudiated the Treaty and once more declared war on the Central Powers.
These changes meant the Allies who negotiated theTreaty of Versailles in 1919 included the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan and the United States; Part One of the Treaty agreed to the establishment of theLeague of Nations on 25 January 1919.[11] This came into being on 16 January 1920 with Britain, France, Italy and Japan as permanent members of the Executive Council; theUS Senate voted against ratification of the treaty on 19 March, thus preventing the United States from joining the League.
For much of the 19th century, Britain sought to maintain the European balance of power without formal alliances, a policy known assplendid isolation. This left it dangerously exposed as Europe divided into opposing power blocs. In response, the1895–1905 Conservative government negotiated first the 1902Anglo-Japanese Alliance, then the 1904Entente Cordiale with France.[23] The first tangible result of this shift was British support for France against Germany in the1905 Moroccan Crisis.
The1905–1915 Liberal government continued this re-alignment with the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention. Like the Anglo-Japanese and Entente agreements, it focused on settling colonial disputes but by doing so paved the way for wider co-operation and allowed Britain to refocus resources in response toGerman naval expansion.[24]
Since control of Belgium allowed an opponent to threaten invasion or blockade British trade, preventing it was a long-standing British strategic interest.[a][25] Under Article VII of the 1839Treaty of London, Britain guaranteed Belgian neutrality against aggression by any other state, by force if required.[26] ChancellorTheobald von Bethmann Hollweg later dismissed this as a 'scrap of paper,' but British law officers routinely confirmed it as a binding legal obligation and its importance was well understood by Germany.[27]
The 1911Agadir Crisis led to secret discussions between France and Britain in case of war with Germany. These agreed that within two weeks of its outbreak, aBritish Expeditionary Force of 100,000 men would be landed in France; in addition, theRoyal Navy would be responsible for theNorth Sea, theChannel and protecting Northern France, with the French navy concentrated in theMediterranean.[28] Britain was committed to support France in a war against Germany but this was not widely understood outside government or the upper ranks of the military.
As late as 1 August, a clear majority of the Liberal government and its supporters wanted to stay out of the war.[29] While Liberal leadersH. H. Asquith andEdward Grey considered Britain legally and morally committed to support France regardless, waiting until Germany triggered the 1839 Treaty provided the best chance of preserving Liberal party unity.[30]
Canadian Army recruitment poster
The German high command was aware entering Belgium would lead to British intervention but decided the risk was acceptable; they expected a short war while their ambassador in London claimed troubles in Ireland would prevent Britain from assisting France.[31] On 3 August, Germany demanded unimpeded progress through any part of Belgium and when this was refused, invaded early on the morning of 4 August.
This changed the situation; the invasion of Belgium consolidated political and public support for the war by presenting what appeared to be a simple moral and strategic choice.[32] The Belgians asked for assistance under the 1839 Treaty and in response, Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914.[33] Although Germany's violation of Belgium neutrality was not the only cause of British entry into the war, it was used extensively in government propaganda at home and abroad to make the case for British intervention.[34] This confusion arguably persists today.
The declaration of war automatically involved allDominions, colonies, and protectorates of theBritish Empire, many of whom made significant contributions to the Allied war effort, both in the provision of troops and civilian labourers. It was split intoCrown Colonies administered by theColonial Office in London, such asNigeria,[b] and the self-governing Dominions ofAustralia,Canada,New Zealand,Newfoundland, andSouth Africa. These controlled their own domestic policies and military expenditure but not foreign policy.
After the Indian Army, the largest individual units were theAustralian Corps andCanadian Corps in France, which by 1918 were commanded by their own generals,John Monash andArthur Currie.[36] Contingents from South Africa, New Zealand and Newfoundland served in theatres including France,Gallipoli,German East Africa and the Middle East. Australian troops separately occupiedGerman New Guinea, with the South Africans doing the same inGerman South West Africa; this resulted in theMaritz rebellion by former Boers, which was quickly suppressed. After the war, New Guinea and South-West Africa becameProtectorates, held until 1975 and 1990 respectively.
Between 1873 and 1887, Russia was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary in theLeague of the Three Emperors, then with Germany in the 1887–1890Reinsurance Treaty; both collapsed due to the competing interests of Austria and Russia in theBalkans. While France took advantage of this to agree the 1894Franco-Russian Alliance, Britain viewed Russia with deep suspicion; in 1800, over 3,000 kilometres separated the Russian Empire and British India, by 1902, it was 30 km in some areas.[37] This threatened to bring the two into direct conflict, as did the long-held Russian objective of gaining control of theBosporus Straits and with it access to the British-dominatedMediterranean Sea.[38]
Russian recruiting poster; the caption reads 'World on fire; Second Patriotic War'.
Russian defeat in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and Britain's isolation during the 1899–1902Second Boer War led both parties to seek allies. TheAnglo-Russian Convention of 1907 settled disputes in Asia and allowed the establishment of the Triple Entente with France, which at this stage was largely informal. In 1908, Austria annexed the former Ottoman province ofBosnia and Herzegovina; Russia responded by creating theBalkan League in order to prevent further Austrian expansion.[39] In the 1912–1913First Balkan War,Serbia,Bulgaria andGreece captured most of the remaining Ottoman possessions in Europe; disputes over the division of these resulted in theSecond Balkan War, in which Bulgaria was comprehensively defeated by its former allies.
Russia's industrial base and railway network had significantly improved since 1905, although from a relatively low base; in 1913,Tsar Nicholas approved an increase in the Russian Army of over 500,000 men. Although there was no formal alliance between Russia and Serbia, their close bilateral links provided Russia with a route into the crumbling Ottoman Empire, where Germany also had significant interests. Combined with the increase in Russian military strength, both Austria and Germany felt threatened by Serbian expansion; when Austria invaded Serbia on 28 July 1914, Russian Foreign MinisterSergey Sazonov viewed it as an Austro-German conspiracy to end Russian influence in the Balkans.[40]
In addition to its own territory, Russia viewed itself as the defender of its fellowSlavs and on 30 July, mobilised in support of Serbia. In response, Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August, followed by Austria-Hungary on 6th; after Ottoman warships bombardedOdessa in late October, the Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914.[41]
French defeat in the 1870–1871Franco-Prussian War led to the loss of the two provinces ofAlsace-Lorraine and the establishment of theThird Republic. The suppression of theParis Commune by the new regime caused deep political divisions and led to a series of bitter political struggles, such as theDreyfus affair. As a result, aggressive nationalism orRevanchism was one of the few areas to unite the French.
The loss of Alsace-Lorraine deprived France of its natural defence line on theRhine, while it was weaker demographically than Germany, whose 1911 population was 64.9 million to 39.6 in France, which had the lowest birthrate in Europe.[42] This meant that despite their very different political systems, when Germany allowed the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse, France seized the opportunity to agree the 1894Franco-Russian Alliance. It also replaced Germany as the primary source of financing for Russian industry and the expansion of its railway network, particularly in border areas with Germany and Austria-Hungary.[43]
However, Russian defeat in the 1904–1905Russo-Japanese War damaged its credibility, while Britain's isolation during theSecond Boer War meant both countries sought additional allies. This resulted in the 1904Entente Cordiale with Britain; like the 1907Anglo-Russian Convention, for domestic British consumption it focused on settling colonial disputes but led to informal co-operation in other areas. By 1914, both the British army andRoyal Navy were committed to support France in the event of war with Germany but even in the British government, very few were aware of the extent of these commitments.[44]
In response to Germany's declaration of war on Russia, France issued a general mobilisation in expectation of war on 2 August and on 3 August, Germany also declared war on France.[45] Germany's ultimatum to Belgium brought Britain into the war on 4 August, although France did not declare war on Austria-Hungary until 12 August.
As with Britain, France'scolonies also became part of the war; pre-1914, French soldiers and politicians advocated using French African recruits to help compensate for France's demographic weakness. But it eventually proved useless, the soldiers fromMetropolitan France still undertook all the tasks.[46] From August to December 1914, the French lost nearly 300,000 dead on the Western Front, more than Britain suffered in the whole of WWII and the gaps were partly filled by colonial troops, over 500,000 of whom served on the Western Front over the period 1914–1918.[47] Colonial troops also fought atGallipoli, occupiedTogo andKamerun in West Africa and had a minor role in the Middle East, where France was the traditional protector of Christians in the Ottoman provinces ofSyria,Palestine andLebanon.[48]
Prior to theMeiji Restoration in 1868, Japan was a semi-feudal, largely agrarian state with few natural resources and limited technology. By 1914, it had transformed itself into a modern industrial state, with a powerful military; by defeating China in theFirst Sino-Japanese War during 1894–1895, it established itself as the primary power in East Asia and colonised the then-unified Korea andFormosa, now modern Taiwan.
Concerned by Russian expansion in Korea andManchuria, Britain and Japan signed theAnglo-Japanese Alliance on 30 January 1902, agreeing if either were attacked by a third party, the other would remain neutral and if attacked by two or more opponents, the other would come to its aid. This meant Japan could rely on British support in a war with Russia, if either France or Germany, which also had interests in China, decided to join them.[49] This gave Japan the reassurance needed to take on Russia in the 1905Russo-Japanese War; victory established Japan in the Chinese province ofManchuria.
The Japanese carrierWakamiya conducted the first ship-launched aerial attack in 1914.
With Japan as an ally in the Far East,John Fisher,First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1910, was able to refocus British naval resources in theNorth Sea to counter the threat from theImperial German Navy. The Alliance was renewed in 1911; in 1914, Japan joined the Entente in return for German territories in the Pacific, greatly annoying the Australian government which also wanted them.[50]
On 7 August 1914, Britain officially asked for assistance in destroying German naval units in China and Japan formally declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914, followed by Austria-Hungary on 25 August 1914.[51] On 2 September 1914, Japanese forces surrounded the GermanTreaty Port ofQingdao, then known as Tsingtao, which surrendered on 7 November. TheImperial Japanese Navy simultaneously occupied German colonies in theMariana,Caroline, andMarshall Islands, while in 1917, a Japanese naval squadron was sent to support the Allies in theMediterranean Sea.[52]
Japan's primary interest was in China and in January 1915, the Chinese government was presented with a secret ultimatum ofTwenty-One Demands, demanding extensive economic and political concessions. While these were eventually modified, the result was a surge of anti-Japanesenationalism in China and an economic boycott of Japanese goods.[53] In addition, the other Allies now saw Japan as a threat, rather than a partner, leading to tensions first with Russia, then the US after it entered the war in April 1917. Despite protests from the other Allies, after the war Japan refused to return Qingdao and the province ofShandong to China.[54]
Alpini troops marching in the snow at 3,000 m altitude, 1917
The 1882Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was renewed at regular intervals, but was compromised by conflicting objectives between Italy and Austria in theAdriatic andAegean seas. Italian nationalists referred to Austrian-heldIstria (includingTrieste andFiume) andTrento as'the lost territories', making the Alliance so controversial that the terms were kept secret until it expired in 1915.[55]
Alberto Pollio, the pro-AustrianChief of Staff of the Italian Army, died on 1 July 1914, taking many of the prospects for Italian support with him.[56] The Italian Prime MinisterAntonio Salandra argued that as the Alliance was defensive in nature, Austria's aggression against Serbia and Italy's exclusion from the decision-making process meant it was not obliged to join them.[57]
His caution was understandable because France and Britain either supplied or controlled the import of most of Italy's raw materials, including 90% of its coal.[57] Salandra described the process of choosing a side as 'sacred egoism,' but as the war was expected to end before mid-1915 at the latest, making this decision became increasingly urgent.[58] In line with Italy's obligations under the Triple Alliance, the bulk of the army was concentrated on Italy's border with France; in October, Pollio's replacement,General Luigi Cadorna, was ordered to begin moving these troops to the North-Eastern one with Austria.[59]
Under the April 1915Treaty of London, Italy agreed to join the Entente in return for Italian-populated territories of Austria-Hungary and other concessions; in return, it declared war on Austria-Hungary in May 1915 as required, although not on Germany until 1916.[60] Italian resentment at the difference between the promises of 1915 and the actual results of the 1919Treaty of Versailles would be powerful factors in the rise ofBenito Mussolini.[61]
In 1817, thePrincipality of Serbia became an autonomous province within theOttoman Empire; with Russian support, it gained full independence after the 1877–1878Russo-Turkish War. Many Serbs viewed Russia as protector of theSouth Slavs in general but also specifically against Bulgaria, where Russian objectives increasingly collided withBulgarian nationalism.[62]
When Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, Russia responded by creating theBalkan League to prevent further Austrian expansion.[39] Austria viewed Serbia with hostility partly due to its links with Russia, whose claim to be the protector of South Slavs extended to those within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, such as theCzechs andSlovaks. Serbia also potentially gave Russia the ability to achieve their long-held objective of capturingConstantinople and theDardanelles.[38]
The Serbian Army in retreat, 1915
Austria-Hungary supported the idea of anindependent Albania, since this would prevent Serbian access to the Austrian-controlledAdriatic Sea.[63] The success of theAlbanian revolt in 1912 threatened Serbian ambitions for the incorporation of "Old Serbia" into its domain and exposed the weakness of the Ottoman Empire. This led to the outbreak of theFirst Balkan War, withSerbia,Montenegro,Bulgaria andGreece capturing most of the remaining Ottoman possessions in Europe. Disputes over the division of these resulted in theSecond Balkan War, in which Bulgaria was comprehensively defeated by its former allies.
As a result of the 1913Treaty of Bucharest, Serbia increased its territory by 100% and its population by 64%.[64] However, it now faced a hostile Austria-Hungary, a resentful Bulgaria andresistance in its conquered territories. Germany too had ambitions in the Ottoman Empire, the centrepiece being the plannedBerlin–Baghdad railway, with Serbia the only section not controlled by a pro-German state.
The exact role played by Serbian officials in theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is still debated but despite complying with most of their demands, Austria-Hungary invaded on 28 July 1914. While Serbia successfully repulsed the Austro-Hungarian army in 1914, it was exhausted by the two Balkan Wars and unable to replace its losses of men and equipment. In 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and by the end of the year, a combined Bulgar-Austrian-German army occupied most of Serbia. Between 1914 and 1918, Serbia suffered the greatest proportional losses of any combatant, with over 25% of all those mobilised becoming casualties; including civilians and deaths from disease, over 1.2 million died, nearly 30% of the entire population.
In 1830, the southern provinces of the Netherlands broke away to form theKingdom of Belgium and their independence was confirmed by the 1839Treaty of London. Article VII of the Treaty required Belgium to remain perpetually neutral and committed Austria, France, Germany and Russia to guarantee that against aggression by any other state, including the signatories.[65]
While the French and German militaries accepted Germany would almost certainly violate Belgian neutrality in the event of war, the extent of that was unclear. The originalSchlieffen Plan only required a limited incursion into the BelgianArdennes, rather than a full-scale invasion; in September 1911, the Belgian Foreign Minister told a British Embassy official they would not call for assistance if the Germans limited themselves to that.[44] While neither Britain or France could allow Germany to occupy Belgium unopposed, a Belgian refusal to ask for help would complicate matters for theBritish Liberal government, which contained a significant isolationist element.
However, the key German objective was to avoid war on two fronts; France had to be defeated before Russia could fully mobilise and give time for German forces to be transferred to the East. The growth of the Russian railway network and increase in speed of mobilisation made rapid victory over France even more important; to accommodate the additional 170,000 troops approved by the 1913 Army Bill, the 'incursion' now became a full-scale invasion. The Germans accepted the risk of British intervention; in common with most of Europe, they expected it to be a short war while their London Ambassador claimed civil war in Ireland would prevent Britain from assisting its Entente partners.[31]
On 3 August, a German ultimatum demanded unimpeded progress through any part of Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4 August, the Germans invaded and the Belgian government called for British assistance under the 1839 Treaty; by the end of 1914, over 95% of the country was occupied but the Belgian Army held their lines on theYser Front throughout the war.
Greece almost doubled in size as a result of theBalkan Wars of 1912 and 1913, but the success masked deep divisions within the political elite. In 1908, the island ofCrete, formally part of theOttoman Empire but administered by Greek officials, declared union with Greece, led by the charismatic nationalistEleftherios Venizelos. A year later, young army officers formed the Military League to advocate for an aggressive and expansionist foreign policy; with their backing, Venizelos won a majority in the 1910 Parliamentary elections, followed by another in 1912.[68] He had effectively broken the power of the pre-1910 political class and his position was then further strengthened by success in the Balkan Wars.
In 1913, the Greek monarchGeorge I was assassinated; he was succeeded by his sonConstantine who had attendedHeidelberg University, served in a Prussian regiment and marriedSophia of Prussia, sister of EmperorWilliam II. These links and a belief the Central Powers would win the war combined to make Constantine pro-German.[69] Venizelos himself favoured the Entente, partly due to their ability to block the maritime trade routes required for Greek imports.
ColonelNikolaos Christodoulou of the National Defence Army Corps interrogating Bulgarian prisoners, September 1918
Other issues adding complexity to this decision included disputes with Bulgaria and Serbia over the regions ofThrace andMacedonia as well as control of theAegean Islands. Greece captured most of the islands during the Balkan Wars but Italy occupied theDodecanese in 1912 and was in no hurry to give them back, while the Ottomans demanded the return of many others.[70] In general, the Triple Entente favoured Greece, the Triple Alliance backed the Ottomans; Greece ultimately gained the vast majority but Italy did not cede the Dodecanese until 1947, while others remaindisputed even today.
As a result, Greece initially remained neutral but in March 1915, the Entente offered concessions to join theDardanelles campaign. Arguments over whether to accept led to theNational Schism, with an Entente-backed administration under Venizelos in Crete, and a Royalist one led by Constantine inAthens that supported the Central Powers.[69]
In September 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers; in October, Venizelos allowed Entente forces to land atThessaloniki or Salonica to support the Serbs, although they were too late to prevent their defeat. In August 1916, Bulgarian troops advanced into Greek-held Macedonia and Constantine ordered the army not to resist; anger at this led to a coup and he was eventually forced into exile in June 1917. A new national government under Venizelos joined the Entente, while the GreekNational Defence Army Corps fought with the Allies on theMacedonian front.
Nicholas I accepting the surrender of Scutari, April 1913; Montenegro's major gain from the Balkan War, it was relinquished several months later
Unlike Serbia, with whom it shared close cultural and political connections, theKingdom of Montenegro gained little from its participation in the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars. The main Montenegrin offensive was inOttoman-controlled Albania, where it suffered heavy losses during the seven monthSiege of Scutari. Austria-Hungary opposed Serb or Montenegrin control of Albania, since it provided access to theAdriatic Sea; despite Scutari's surrender, Montenegro was forced to relinquish it by the1913 Treaty of London and it became capital of the short-livedPrincipality of Albania.[71] This was largely an Austrian creation; the new ruler,William, Prince of Albania, was a German who was forced into exile in September, only seven months after taking up his new position and later served with theImperial German Army.[72]
Montenegrin soldiers leaving for the front, October 1914
In addition to the lack of substantive gains from the Balkan Wars, there were long-running internal divisions between those who likeNicholas I preferred an independent Montenegro and those who advocated union with Serbia. In July 1914, Montenegro was not only militarily and economically exhausted, but also faced a multitude of political, economic and social issues.[73]
At meetings held in March 1914, Austria-Hungary and Germany agreed union with Serbia must be prevented; Montenegro could either remain independent or be divided, its coastal areas becoming part of Albania, while the rest could join Serbia.[73]
Nicholas seriously considered neutrality as a way to preserve his dynasty and on 31 July notified the Russian Ambassador Montenegro would only respond to an Austrian attack. He also held discussions with Austria, proposing neutrality or even active support in return for territorial concessions in Albania.[74]
However, close links between the Serbian and Montenegrin militaries as well as popular sentiment meant there was little support for remaining neutral, especially after Russia joined the war; on 1 August, the National Assembly declared war on Austria-Hungary in fulfilment of its obligations to Serbia. After some initial success, in January 1916, the Montenegrin Army was forced to surrender to an Austro-Hungarian force.
TheBeda Sultanate was invaded by Ottoman forces in February 1915 and March 1916.[75] Britain assisted the Beda Sultanate in defeating the Ottoman invasions by sending arms and ammunition.[76]
Romanian 250 mm Negrei Model 1916 mortar at theNational Military MuseumVlaicu IIIRomanian troops at Mărășești
Equal status with the main Entente Powers was one of the primary conditions for Romania's entry into the War. The Powers officially recognised this status through the1916 Treaty of Bucharest.[78] Romania fought on three of the four European Fronts:Eastern,Balkan andItalian, fielding in total over 1,200,000 troops.[79]
Romanian military industry was mainly focused on converting various fortification guns into field and anti-aircraft artillery. Up to 334 German 53 mmFahrpanzer guns, 93 French 57 mm Hotchkiss guns, 66 Krupp 150 mm guns, and dozens more 210 mm guns were mounted on Romanian-builtcarriages and transformed into mobile field artillery, with 45 Krupp 75 mm guns and 132 Hotchkiss 57 mm guns being transformed into anti-aircraft artillery. The Romanians alsoupgraded 120 German Krupp 105 mm howitzers, the result being the most effective field howitzer in Europe at that time. Romania even managed to design and build from scratch its own model of mortar, the 250 mm Negrei Model 1916.[80]
Other Romanian technological assets include the building ofVlaicu III, the world's first aircraft made of metal.[81] The Romanian Navy possessed the largest warships on the Danube. They were a class of four river monitors, built locally at theGalați shipyard using parts manufactured in Austria-Hungary. The first one launched wasLascăr Catargiu, in 1907.[82][83] The Romanian monitors displaced almost 700 tons, were armed with three 120 mm naval guns in three turrets, two 120 mm naval howitzers, four 47 mm anti-aircraft guns and two 6.5 machine guns.[84] The monitors took part in theBattle of Turtucaia and theFirst Battle of Cobadin. The Romanian-designed Schneider 150 mm Model 1912 howitzer was considered one of the most modern field guns on the Western Front.[85]
Romania's entry into the War in August 1916 provoked major changes for the Germans. GeneralErich von Falkenhayn was dismissed and sent to command the Central Powers forces in Romania, which enabledHindenburg's subsequent ascension to power.[10] Due to having to fight against all of the Central Powers on the longest front in Europe (1,600 km) and with little foreign help (only 50,000 Russians aided 650,000 Romanians in 1916),[86]the Romanian capital was conquered that December. Vlaicu III was also captured and shipped to Germany, being last seen in 1942.[87] The Romanian administration established a new capital atIași and continued to fight on the Allied side in 1917.[88] Despite being relatively short, the Romanian campaign of 1916 provided considerable respite for the Western Allies, as the Germans ceased all their other offensive operations in order to deal with Romania.[89] After suffering a tactical defeat against the Romanians (aided by Russians) in July 1917 atMărăști, the Central Powers launched two counterattacks, atMărășești andOituz. The German offensive at Mărășești was soundly defeated, with German prisoners later telling their Romanian captors that German casualties were extremely heavy, and that they "had not encountered such stiff resistance since the battles of Somme and Verdun".[90] The Austro-Hungarian offensive at Oituz also failed. On 22 September, the Austro-HungarianEnns-class river monitorSMSInn was sunk by a Romanian mine near Brăila.[91][92] After Russia signed theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk and dropped out of the War, Romania was left surrounded by the Central Powers and eventually signed asimilar treaty on 7 May 1918. Despite being forced to cede land to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, Romania ended up with a net gain in territory due to theUnion with Bessarabia. On 10 November, Romania re-entered the War and fought awar with Hungary that lasted until August 1919.
Brazil entered the war in 1917 after the United States intervened on the basis of Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare sinking its merchant ships, which Brazil also cited as a reason to enter the war fighting against Germany and the Central Powers. TheFirst Brazilian Republic sent the Naval Division in War Operations that joined the British fleet inGibraltar and made the first Brazilian naval effort in international waters. In compliance with the commitments made at theInter-American Conference, held in Paris from 20 November to 3 December 1917, the Brazilian Government sent a medical mission composed of civilian and military surgeons to work in field hospitals of the European theatre, a contingent of sergeants and officers to serve with theFrench Army; Airmen from the Army and Navy to join theRoyal Air Force, and the employment of part of the Fleet, primarily in the anti-submarine war.
Three non-state combatants, which voluntarily fought with the Allies and seceded from the constituent states of the Central Powers at the end of the war, were allowed to participate as winning nations to the peace treaties:[citation needed]
Armenianirregulars andvolunteers: seceded from the Russian Empire in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution and fought against the Ottoman Empire
Assyrian volunteers underMar Shimun XIX Benyamin and the Assyrian tribal chiefs decided to side with the Allies, first with Russia, and next with the British, in the hope that they might secure after the victory, self-government for the Assyrians.[96] The French also joined the alliance with the Assyrians, offering them 20,000 rifles, and the Assyrian army grew to 20,000 men co-led byAgha Petros of the Bit-Bazi tribe, andMalik Khoshaba of the Bit-Tiyari tribe.[97][98]
Additionally, there were also severalKurdish rebellions during World War I. Most of these, except for the uprisings of August 1917, were not supported by any of the Allied powers.[99]
General/Field MarshalŽivojin Mišić – Deputy Chief of the General Staff (1914), Commander ofFirst Army (1914–1915; 1917), later Chief of the General Staff (1918)
General/Field MarshalPetar Bojović – Commander of theFirst Army (1914), Deputy Chief of General Staff (1915–1916), Chief of the General Staff (1916–1917) later Commander of the First Army (1918)
GeneralBožidar Janković – Chief of the General Staff of the Montenegrin Army (1914–1915)
ColonelPetar Pešić – Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Montenegrin Army (1914–1915), later Chief of the General Staff of the Montenegrin Army (1915–1916)
GeneralMitar Martinović – commander of several detachments in the Montenegrin Army (Drina and Herzegovina detachments together in 1914–1915, Kotor detachment in 1916)
General AdjutantAleksei Brusilov – Commander of the Southwestenr Front, then provisional Commander-in-Chief after the Tsar's abdication (February 1917 – August 1917)
A pie-chart showing the military deaths of the Allied Powers
These are estimates of the cumulative number of different personnel in uniform 1914–1918, including army, navy and auxiliary forces. At any one time, the various forces were much smaller. Only a fraction of them were frontline combat troops. The numbers do not reflect the length of time each country was involved.
^Australia casualties Included in total are 55,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[101]-. TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2005–2006 is the source of total military dead.[102]– Totals include 2,005 military deaths during 1919–21[103]–. The 1922War Office report listed 59,330 Army war dead.[104]
^Belgium casualties Included in total are 35,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[101] Figures include 13,716 killed and 24,456 missing up until Nov.11, 1918. "These figures are approximate only, the records being incomplete." .[105]
^Canada casualties Included in total are 53,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101] TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2005–2006 is the source of total military dead.[102] Totals include 3,789 military deaths during 1919–21 and 150Merchant Navy deaths[103]–. The losses of Newfoundland are listed separately on this table. The 1922War Office report listed 56,639 Army war dead.[104]
^France casualties Included in total are 1,186,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101] Totals include the deaths of 71,100 French colonial troops.[108]-Figures include war related military deaths of 28,600 from 11/11/1918 to 6/1/1919.[108]
^Greece casualties Jean Bujac in a campaign history of the Greek Army in World War One listed 8,365 combat related deaths and 3,255 missing,[109] The Soviet researcher Boris Urlanis estimated total dead of 26,000 including 15,000 military deaths due disease[110]
^India casualties British India included present-day India,Pakistan andBangladesh. Included in total are 27,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101] TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2005–2006 is the source of total military dead.[102] Totals include 15,069 military deaths during 1919–21 and 1,841Canadian Merchant Navy dead.[103] The 1922War Office report listed 64,454 Army war dead[104]
^Italy casualties Included in total are 433,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[101] Figures of total military dead are from a 1925 Italian report using official data.[111][page needed]
^War dead figure is from a 1991 history of the Japanese Army.[112]
^New Zealand casualties Included in total are 14,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101] TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2005–2006 is the source of total military dead.[102] Totals include 702 military deaths during 1919–21.[103] The 1922War Office report listed 16,711 Army war dead.[104]
^Portugal casualties Figures include the following killed and died of other causes up until Jan.1, 1920; 1,689 in France and 5,332 in Africa. Figures do not include an additional 12,318 listed as missing andPOW.[115]
^Romania casualties Military dead is "The figure reported by the Rumanian Government in reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office".[116] Included in total are 177,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101]
^Russia casualties Included in total are 1,451,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101] The estimate of total Russian military losses was made by the Soviet researcher Boris Urlanis.[117]
^Serbia casualties Included in total are 165,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101] The estimate of total combined Serbian and Montenegrin military losses of 278,000 was made by the Soviet researcher Boris Urlanis[118]
^South Africa casualties Included in total are 5,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[101] TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2005–2006 is the source of total military dead.[102] Totals include 380 military deaths during 1919–2115. The 1922War Office report listed 7,121 Army war dead.[104]
^UK andCrown Colonies casualties Included in total are 624,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[101] TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2005–2006 is the source of total military dead.[102] Military dead total includes 34,663 deaths during 1919–21 and 13,632British Merchant Navy deaths.[103] The 1922War Office report listed 702,410 war dead for the UK,[104] 507 from "Other colonies"[104] and theRoyal Navy (32,287).[120] TheBritish Merchant Navy losses of 14,661 were listed separately;[120] The 1922War Office report detailed the deaths of 310 military personnel due to air and sea bombardment of the UK.[121]
^Magliveras, Konstantin (1999).Exclusion from Participation in International Organisations: The Law and Practice Behind Member States' Expulsion and Suspension of Membership. Brill. pp. 8–12.ISBN978-90-411-1239-2.
^Germany (and colonies), Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria
^Avner Cohen, "Joseph Chamberlain, Lord Lansdowne and British foreign policy 1901–1903: From collaboration to confrontation",Australian Journal of Politics & History 43#2 (1997): 122–134.
^Massie, Robert (2007).Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War (2013 ed.). Vintage. pp. 466–468.ISBN978-0-09-952402-1.
^Nilesh, Preeta (2014). "Belgian Neutrality and the First world War; Some Insights".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.75: 1014.JSTOR44158486.
^Hull, Isabel (2014).A Scrap of Paper: Breaking and Making International Law during the Great War. Cornell University Press. p. 17.ISBN978-0-8014-5273-4.
^Schreuder, Deryck (Spring 1978). "Gladstone as "Troublemaker": Liberal Foreign Policy and the German Annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, 1870–1871".Journal of British Studies.17 (2):108–109.doi:10.1086/385724.JSTOR175393.S2CID145137541.
^Jenkins, Roy (1964).Asquith (1988 Revised and Updated ed.). Harpers Collins. pp. 242–245.ISBN978-0-00-217358-2.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Cassar, George (1994).Asquith as War Leader. Bloomsbury. pp. 14–17.ISBN978-1-85285-117-0.
^abBrock, Michael; Brock, Elinor, eds. (2014).Margot Asquith's Great War Diary 1914–1916: The View from Downing Street (Kindle ed.). OUP Oxford; Reprint edition. pp. 852–864.ISBN978-0-19-873772-8.
^Gullace, Nicoletta F (June 1997). "Sexual Violence and Family Honor: British Propaganda and International Law during the First World War".The American Historical Review.102 (3): 717.doi:10.2307/2171507.JSTOR2171507.
^Tucker, Spencer C. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. 2009. P1562.
^Hopkirk, Peter (1990).The Great Game; On Secret Service in High Asia (1991 ed.). OUP. pp. 4–5.ISBN978-0-7195-6447-5.
^abDennis, Alfred L.P. (December 1922). "The Freedom of the Straits".The North American Review.216 (805):728–729.JSTOR25112888.
^abStowell, Ellery Cory (1915).The Diplomacy of the War of 1914: The Beginnings of the War (2010 ed.). Kessinger Publishing. p. 94.ISBN978-1-165-81956-0.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Jelavich, Barbara (2008).Russia's Balkan Entanglements. Cambridge University Press. p. 262.ISBN978-0-521-52250-2.
^Aksakal, Mustafa (2012). "War as a Saviour? Hopes for War & Peace in Ottoman Politics before 1914". In Afflerbach, Holger; Stevenson, David (eds.).An Improbable War? the Outbreak of World War I and European Political Culture Before 1914. Berghahn Books. p. 293.ISBN978-0-85745-310-5.
^abBrock, Michael; Brock, Elinor, eds. (2014).Margot Asquith's Great War Diary 1914–1916: The View from Downing Street (Kindle ed.). OUP Oxford; Reprint edition. pp. 759–781.ISBN978-0-19-873772-8.
^Tucker, Spencer C.A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. 2009. p. 1556.
^Hargreaves, John (1983). "French West Africa in the First World War; a review of L'Appel à l'Afrique. Contributions et Réactions à l'Effort de guerre en A.O.F. (1914–1919) by Marc Michel".The Journal of African History.24 (2):285–288.doi:10.1017/S002185370002199X.JSTOR181646.S2CID161424205.
^Tanenbaum, Jan Karl (1978). "France and the Arab Middle East, 1914–1920".Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.68 (7): 5.doi:10.2307/1006273.JSTOR1006273.
^Zhitian Luo, "National humiliation and national assertion-The Chinese response to the twenty-one demands",Modern Asian Studies (1993) 27#2 pp 297–319.
^Roudometof, Victor (2001).Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans. Praeger Publishing. p. 79.ISBN978-0-313-31949-5.
^Hull, Isabel V (2014).A Scrap of Paper: Breaking and Making International Law during the Great War. Cornell University. pp. Chapter 2 Belgian Neutrality.ISBN978-0-8014-5273-4.
^van Reybrouck, David (2014).Congo: The Epic History of a People. Harper Collins. pp. 132 passim.ISBN978-0-06-220012-9.
^Strachan, Hew (2014).First World War; a New History. Simon & Schuster UK. p. 70.ISBN978-1-4711-3426-5.
^Kaldis, William Peter (June 1979). "Background for Conflict: Greece, Turkey, and the Aegean Islands, 1912–1914".The Journal of Modern History.51 (2):D1119 –D1146.doi:10.1086/242039.JSTOR1881125.S2CID144142861.
^Treadway, John (1983).The Falcon and the Eagle: Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 1908–14. Purdue Press. pp. 150–153.ISBN978-0-911198-65-2.
^Elsie, Robert (2010).Historical Dictionary of Albania. Historical Dictionaries of Europe. Vol. 75 (2 ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. 255.ISBN978-0810861886.
^abRaspopović, Radoslav."Montenegro".encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved5 September 2018.
^Treadway, John (1983).The Falcon and the Eagle: Montenegro and Austria-Hungary, 1908–14. Purdue Press. pp. 186–189.ISBN978-0-911198-65-2.
^Clark, Charles Upson (1971).United Roumania. Arno Press. p. 135.ISBN978-0405027413.
^Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts,Encyclopedia of World War I, p. 273
^Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru,Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), pp. 40, 49, 50, 54, 59, 61, 63, 65, and 66 (in Romanian)
^Jozef Wilczynski,Technology in Comecon: Acceleration of Technological Progress Through Economic Planning and the Market, p. 243
^International Naval Research Organization,Warship International, Volume 21, p. 160
^Francisco Verras; "D.N.O.G.: contribuicao da Marinha Brasileira na Grande Guerra" ("DNOG; the role of Brazilian Navy in the Great War")(in Portuguese) "A Noite" Ed. 1920
Gooch, G. P.Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy (1940), 475pp; summarises memoirs of major participants
Higham, Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds.Researching World War I: A Handbook (2003); historiography, stressing military themes
Pope, Stephen and Wheal, Elizabeth-Anne, eds.The Macmillan Dictionary of the First World War (1995)
Strachan, Hew.The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (2004)
Trask, David F.The United States in the Supreme War Council: American War Aims and Inter-Allied Strategy, 1917–1918 (1961)
Tucker Spencer C (1999).The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland.ISBN978-0-8153-3351-7.
Tucker, Spencer, ed.The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 volumes) (2005); online at eBook.com
United States. War Dept. General Staff.Strength and organisation of the armies of France, Germany, Austria, Russia, England, Italy, Mexico and Japan (showing conditions in July, 1914) (1916)online
The War Office (2006) [1922].Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920. Uckfield, East Sussex: Military and Naval Press.ISBN978-1-84734-681-0.OCLC137236769.
Urlanis, Boris (2003) [1971, Moscow].Wars and Population. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific.OCLC123124938.
Huber, Michel (1931).La population de la France pendant la guerre, avec un appendice sur Les revenus avant et après la guerre (in French). Paris.OCLC4226464.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Bujac, Jean Léopold Emile (1930).Les campagnes de l'armèe Hellènique 1918–1922 (in French). Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle.OCLC10808602.
Mortara, Giorgio (1925).La Salute pubblica in Italia durante e dopo la Guerra (in Italian). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.OCLC2099099.
Harries, Merion; Harries, Susie (1991).Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army. Random House.ISBN978-0-679-75303-2.OCLC32615324.
Clodfelter, Micheal (2002).Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000 (2nd ed.). London: McFarland.ISBN978-0-7864-1204-4.OCLC48066096.
Donato, Hernâni (1987).Dicionário das Batalhas Brasileiras. Rio de Janeiro: IBRASA.ISBN978-85-348-0034-1.
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