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Aljamiado (Spanish:[alxaˈmjaðo];Portuguese:[alʒɐmiˈaðu];Arabic:عَجَمِيَّةtrans.ʿaǧamiyyah[ʕad͡ʒaˈmij.ja(h)]) orAljamía texts are manuscripts that use theArabic script for transcribing European languages, especiallyRomance languages such asOld Spanish orAragonese. This alphabet is also called the Morisco alphabet.
According to Anwar G. Chejne,Aljamiado orAljamía is "a corruption of the Arabic wordʿaǧamiyyah (in this case it means foreign language) and, generally, the Arabic expressionʿaǧam and its derivativeʿaǧamiyyah are applicable to peoples whose ancestry is not of Arabian origin".[3] During theArab conquest of Persia, the term became a pejorative.[4]
The systematic writing of Romance-language texts in Arabic scripts appears to have begun in the fifteenth century, and the overwhelming majority of such texts that can be dated belong to the sixteenth century.[5] A keyaljamiado text is the compilationSuma de los principales mandamientos y devediamentos de nuestra santa ley y sunna by themuftī of Segovia, of 1462.[6]
In later times,Moriscos were banned from using Arabic as a religious language, and wrote inSpanish on Islamic subjects. Examples are theCoplas del alhichante de Puey Monzón, narrating aḤaǧǧ,[7] or thePoema de Yuçuf on the BiblicalJoseph (written inAragonese).[8]
Aljamiado played a very important role[9] in preserving Islam and the Arabic language in the life of the Moriscos ofCastile andAragon;Valencian andGranadan Moriscos spoke and wrote inAndalusi Arabic. After the fall of the last Muslim kingdom on the Iberian peninsula, the Moriscos (Muslims in parts of what was onceAl-ʾAndalus) were forced to convert to Christianity or leave the peninsula. They were forced to adopt Christian customs and traditions and to attend church services on Sundays. Nevertheless, some of the Moriscoskept their Islamic belief and traditions secretly, and this included the usage of Aljamiado.
In 1567,Philip II of Spain issued a royal decree in Spain, which forced Moriscos to abandon using Arabic on all occasions, formal and informal, speaking and writing. Using Arabic in any sense of the word would be regarded as a crime. They were given three years to learn the language of the Christian Spanish, after which they would have to get rid of all Arabic written material. Moriscos ofCastile andAragon translated all prayers and the (ʾAḥādīṯ of the Prophet Muhammad) into Aljamiado transcriptions of the Spanish language, while keeping allQurʾānic verses in the original Arabic. Aljamiado scrolls were circulated amongst the Moriscos. Historians came to know about Aljamiado literature only in the early nineteenth century. Some of the Aljamiado scrolls are kept in theSpanish National Library in Madrid.
| Aljamiado | Latin Equivalent | Ladino Equivalent | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| ا1 | - | א | [-] |
| ب | B b | ב בﬞ (ב׳) | [b] |
| بّ2 | P p | פ | [p] |
| ت | T t | ט | [t] |
| ث3 | T t | תﬞ (ת׳) | [θ] |
| ج | J j Ge ge4 Gi gi | גﬞ (ג׳) זﬞ (ז׳) | [ʒ]5 |
| جّ2 | Ch ch | גﬞ (ג׳) | [t͡ʃ] |
| ح3 | H h | ח | [h]~[ħ] |
| خ3 | J j H h | חﬞ (ח׳) | [x] |
| د6 | D d | ד | [d] |
| ذ6 | D d | דﬞ (ד׳) | [ð] |
| ر | R r | ר | [ɾ] |
| رّ2 | Rr rr R r | ר | [r] |
| ز | Z z | ז | [dz] |
| س | Ç ç4 Ce ce Ci ci S s Ss ss X x7 | ס | [ts] ([s]/[z]) |
| ش | X x7 | שׁ | [ʃ] |
| كس | X x7 | כּס | [ks]~[gz] |
| ص3 | S s | צ ץ | [s] |
| ض3 | Ld ld | צﬞ ץﬞ (צ׳ ץ׳) | [d] |
| ط3 | T t | ט | [t] |
| ظ3 | D d | טﬞ (ט׳) | [ð] |
| ع3 | ' | ע | [ʕ] |
| غ | G g Gu gu4 (except Ge ge Gi gi) | ג | [g] |
| ڢ8 (ف) | F f | פﬞ ף (פ׳) | [ɸ]~[f] |
| ڧ3, 8 (ق) | K k Qu qu | ק | [q]~[k] |
| ك | K k Qu qu C c4 (except Ç ç Ce ce Ci ci) | ק | [k] |
| ل | L l | ל | [l] |
| لّ2 | Ll ll | ליי | [ʎ] |
| م | M m | מ ם | [m] |
| ن | N n | נ ן | [n] |
| نّ2 | Ñ ñ | ניי | [ɲ] |
| و9 | W w V v | -ו | [w] ([v]~[β]) |
| هـ ه | H h | א / ה | [-] |
| ي10 | Y y | י / יי / -י | [j] |
Notes:
Spanish has 5 vowels, which include [a], [e], [i], [o], [u].
In the Arabic language and alphabet, however, there are only 3 vowels, [a], [i], [u]. In Arabic, these 3 vowels have both a short form, which is represented bydiacriticsfatʾha,kasra, andḍamma, and long forms, which are represented by the lettersalif (ا),yaʾ (ي), andwaw (و).
In Spanish, however, there is no difference between short and long vowels. In Aljamiado alphabet, 4 vowels are written as follows:[11]
The vowel [a] is represented by the diacritic "◌َ".The vowel [i] is represented by the diacritic "◌ِ".The two vowels [o] and [u] are merged and are represented by the diacritic "◌ُ".The vowel [e] is represented by the combination of fatʾha andalif "ـَـا".
The Hebrew alphabet, like Arabic, has both diacritics, known asniqqud, and the use of three lettersalef (א),vav (ו), andyod (י). In the Judaeo-Spanish alphabet, niqqud is not used, and only three aforementioned letters are used. Also, in addition to the merger of [o] and [u], two vowels [i] and [e] are also merged, and thus only three vowels are shown; as follows:[12]
The vowel [a] is represented byalif "א".The two vowels [e] and [i] are merged and represented byyod "י".The two vowels [o] and [u] are merged and are represented byvav "ו".
In Aljamiado, similar to Arabic and Persian, when the vowel is at the beginning of the word,alif (ا) is used as the vowel carrier, except for the [e] sound. For the [e] sound, ahamza is used as a vowel carrier, followed byalif (ا). In Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) as in Arabic,alif "א" plays the same role.
No distinction between unstressed or stressed vowels exist in Aljamiado manuscripts.
| Latin equivalent | A/Á | E/É | I/Í | O/Ó | U/Ú |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aljamiado equivalent | اَ | ءَا | اِ | اُ | |
| Ladino equivalent | א | אי | או | ||
In the middle of the word, in Aljamiado, only diacritics (and for the case of [e] only a diacritic and analif (ا) and in Judaeo-Spanish only one of the three previously mentioned letters are used.
| Latin equivalent | a/á | e/é | i/í/y | o/ó | u/ú/w |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aljamiado equivalent | ◌َ | ◌َا | ◌ِ | ◌ُ | |
| Ladino equivalent | א (ה)1 | י | ו | ||
Notes:
In Spanish, vowels sequences fall into two general types,diphthongs andVowel hiatus. "diphthong" means that in practice, a pair of sequential vowels are read as a single vowel under one syllable. "Vowel hiatus" means that two vowels are read as two consecutive separate syllables.
The pronunciation of vowels and their writing are subject to certain rules in the Spanish Latin Alphabet, as well as in Aljamiado. In Spanish, vowels are divided into two general groups: "strong" and "weak":
As previously mentioned, in Aljamiado, there is no difference in writing between [o] and [u]. In Judaeo-Spanish, there's no difference between [o] and [u], nor between [e] and [i].
"Vowel hiatus" occurs when two strong vowels are sequential. In such a case, each vowel is read as part of a separate syllable. "Diphthong" occurs when one vowel is weak and the other is strong. In this case,Stress in pronunciation is on the strong vowel. Of course, there are exceptions to these rules.[13]
Below table outlines the general guidelines and some examples
| Latin | Aljamiado | Ladino | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| ia | ◌ِيَـ / ◌ِيَ | יײא / יײה | Criatura كرِيَتُرَ קריאטורה |
| ie | ◌ِيَا | יאי | Xavier شَّبِيَارْ שﬞאבﬞיאיר |
| io | ◌ِيُـ / ◌ِيُ | ײו | Dios دِيُشْ דײוס |
| ua | ◌ُوَ | וא | Cuales كُوَلَاشْ קואליס |
| ue | ◌ُوَا | ואי | Pueder بُّوَاذَارْ פואידﬞיר |
| ui | ◌ُاِ | ואי | Ruido رُاِذُ רואידﬞו |
| oé | ◌ُاَا | ואי | Poeziya بَُاَازِيَ פואיזײה |
| éo | ◌َااُ | יאו | judeoespañol جُذَااُ-ءَاشْبَّنُّلْ גﬞודﬞיאו־איספאנייול |
| áe | ◌َاَا | אאי | Traer تْرَاَارْ טראאיר |
| au | ◌َاُ | אאו | Aunque اَاُنْكَا אאונקי |
| éa | ◌َااَ | יא | Realidad رَااَلِذَذْ ריאלידﬞאדﬞ |
In order to better understand Aljamiado writing conventions, it is necessary to understand the pronunciation ofOld Spanish and the evolution of the sounds of Spanish. That is why the manuscripts of Aljamiado are considered important sources for the study of Spanish linguistics.
The first thing that should be mentioned is that in Aljamiado, like Persian and other Arabic-derived alphabets, changes were made to the letters in the Arabic alphabet in order to show new consonants. In other Arabic-derived alphabets, these changes were made by adding dots to the letters that most closely match an existing sound in Arabic alphabet. But in Aljamiado, this was done bygemination mark on the letters with the closest existing sound. Gemination, in addition to this role, in Aljamiado also plays the role of geminating, like Arabic, something that is done in the Spanish Latin alphabet by writing letters twice. For example, "ب" produces a [b], but "بّ" produces a [p].
The Ladino alphabet also does the same thing withniqqud such as "Rafe" (רָפֶה) "◌ﬞ" or "Geresh" (גֶּרֶשׁ) "◌׳", for example "ב" produces the sound [b], and "בﬞ" or "ב׳" produce the sound [v].
| Aljamiado | IPA | Latin Equivalent | Ladino Equivalent |
|---|---|---|---|
| بّ | [p] | P p | פ |
| جّ | [t͡ʃ] | Ch ch | גﬞ (ג׳) |
| رّ | [r] | Rr rr | ר |
| نّ | [ɲ] | Nn nn | ניי |
| لّ | [ʎ] | Ll ll | ליי[14] |
Notes
Some letters simply adopted another value.
| Letter | Transcription |
|---|---|
| ج | j [ʒ]~[x] |
| غ | g |
| س | ç |
| ش | x |
The phoneme /β/ was typically represented by the letter ب (b), though in some instances it was represented by the letter ف (f). The plosive consonants were required to beaspirated;[15] however, this aspect was lost in weaker positions such as the initial position of a word or an intervocalic position. In Aljamiado texts, the letter ط was utilized to represent the phoneme /t/ in initial and intervocalic positions where it was unaspirated, while the letter ت was utilized in postconsonantal positions to indicate the aspirated form of the phoneme. Similarly, the letter ﻕ was used to represent the phoneme /k/ in initial and intervocalic positions where it was unaspirated, and the letter ﻙ was used in postconsonantal positions to indicate the aspirated form. However, according to the glossary of Abuljair, the aspiration of plosive consonants never ceased to occur in any position.
In Spanish language, the letter "B" has twoallophones. If the letter is at the beginning of the word, or after anasal consonant ("m" or "n"), it is pronounced as [b]. Otherwise, it is pronounced as [v~β]. The letter "v" also is pronounced as [v~β] regardless of position in the word.
In Aljamiado, no distinction is made between any one of these. The letter "baʾ" (ب) is used for all cases.[11]
In Judeo-Spanish, distinction is made between these two allophones. Cases of [b] are written with the letter "beth" "ב". Whereas the sounds [v~β] are written with the letter "beth" withRafe orGeresh "בﬞ (ב׳)".[12][16] US Government Guide on Romanization of Ladino[17]
As Arabic alphabet lacks a letter for the equivalent to the letter "P", the sound [p], in Aljamiado, a digraph has been created. This digraph consists of the letter "baʾ" and ashadda, "بّ".[11]
This is not an issue in Judeo-Spanish, as the letter "Pe" has two possible pronunciations of [p] and [f]. Thus for the sound [p], the letter "pe" (פ) is used. For the sound [f], the letter "pe" plusRafe orGeresh (פﬞ (פ׳) / ף) is used.[12][16]
In Spanish, the letter "G" representstwo pronunciations. If "G" is followed by "e", "i", or "y", it will have a "soft" pronunciation [x]. Otherwise, it will have a hard pronunciation [g].
In Spanish, the letter "J" has pronunciation identical with "soft G". Inold Spanish, these two were pronounced as [ʒ~d͡ʒ]. Thus, the Aljamiado letter for both these sounds is reflective of this historic sound. The letter "jim" (ج) is used, as opposed to "khaʾ" (خ).[11]
Similarly in Judeo-Spanish, the letter "gimel" plusRafe orGeresh (גﬞ (ג׳)) has historically been used. In Modern Judeo-Spanish (Ladino), unlike varieties of Spanish, this historic pronunciation has been preserved. However, due to contact and influence from other languages, namelySerbo-Croatian,Turkish, andFrench, a distinction between [ʒ] and [d͡ʒ] in orthography has come to dominance. Namely that the former ([ʒ]) are shown with "zayn"Rafe orGeresh (זﬞ (ז׳)).[12][16]
Similar to the letter "B", the letter "D" represents twoallophones in Spanish. If the letter is at the beginning of the word, or after anasal consonant ("m" or "n"), it is pronounced as [d]. Otherwise, it is pronounced as [ð].
While this is not reflected in Latin alphabet, in Aljamiado manuscripts, as well as in Judeo-Spanish (not universally) is shown.
In instances where the pronunciation is [d], the letter "dal" (د) has been used in Aljamiado, and the letter "dalet" (ד) Judeo-Spanish.[11][12]
In instances where the pronunciation is [ð], the letter "ḏal" (ذ) has been used in Aljamiado, and the letter "dalet" plusRafe orGeresh (דﬞ (ד׳)) Judeo-Spanish.
In Spanish Latin Alphabet, "r" versus "rr" denotes a difference in pronunciation, with the former being [ɾ] (Voiced alveolar tap), and the latter [r] (Voiced alveolar trill). This distinction is used in Aljamiado too with the use ofshadda. The letter "r" being shown with "raʾ" (ر), and the "rr" with "raʾ-shadda" (رّ).[11]
This distinction is not shown in Judeo-Spanish. Both cases are shown with a single "resh" (ר). In some regional varieties of Ladino, the distinction in pronunciation had ceased to exist as well.[12]
One of the notable evolutions in the Spanish language has been with respect tofricative-coronal consonants.
In old Spanish, the letter "z" was pronounced as [d͡z]. It is thus written in Aljamiado with the letter "zaʾ" (ز). In Judeo-Spanish, the letter "zayin" (ז) is used. However, in modern Spanish, the pronunciation of the letter "z" has evolved in two manners. In most dialects of European Spanish, the letter "z" today is pronounced identically as the soft pronunciation of the letter "c", as [θ]. In Latin American dialects, the letter "z" is pronounced identically as the letter "s" and the soft pronunciation of the letter "c", as [s].[11][12]
The letter "c" has two pronunciations in Spanish, based on rules and factors,hard and soft C. "c" is pronounced "soft" if it is followed by "e", "i", or "y", or if it is given acedilla accent (ç). In other cases, "c" is pronounced as "hard", as a [k].
In old Spanish, the soft pronunciation of "c" was as [t͡s]. In Aljamiado, this letter was uniquely assigned the letter "sin" (س). In Judeo-Spanish, the letter "samech" (ס) was used.[11][12]
However, in modern Spanish, the soft pronunciation of the letter "c" has evolved in two manners. In most dialects of European Spanish, the letter "c" today is pronounced identically as the letter "z", as [θ]. In Latin American dialects, the soft pronunciation of the letter "c" is pronounced identically as the letter "s" and "z", as [s].
In old Spanish, the letter "s" was pronounced as [s] or [z], distinct from the soft pronunciation of the letter "c". The digraph "ss" represented [s] as well, but has since been replaced with a single "s" in Spanish orthography. To reflect the difference between "s" and soft pronunciation of "c", in Aljamiado, the letter "shin" (ش) was given a new association and sound, and was used to write "s". Similarly, in Judeo-Spanish, letter "shin" (ש) was used.[11][12]
In modern Judeo-Spanish, in the centuries afterexpulsion of Jews from Spain, as the pronunciations of "c" and "s" merged independently of Spanish, confusion ensued for a few decades, with both "samech" (ס) and "shin" (ש) being used interchangeably. Today, the letter "samech" (ס) has won out and is used exclusively.
In old Spanish, the letter "x" had a pronunciation as [ʃ]. In Aljamiado, the letter "shin" (ش) was used. In Judeo-Spanish, the letter "shin" has been used, historically with niqqudRafe orGeresh (שﬞ (ש׳)). But in modern times, without any (ש).
In modern Spanish, the pronunciation of "x" has evolved. In most cases, it is now pronounced as the letter "j" would, [x]. This is reflected in orthography as well. In Judeo-Spanish, the original pronunciation has been retained.
In some instances, especially in beginning of words as "ex-", the letter "x" has preserved an [s] sound, or a [ks] sound. In Judeo-Spanish this is reflected mostly by "gimel+zayin" (גז) and in some other words as "koph+samech" (קס).
The practice of Jews writing Romance languages such asSpanish,Aragonese orCatalan in theHebrew script is also referred to asaljamiado.[18]
The wordaljamiado is sometimes used for other non-Semitic language written in Arabic letters:
Article 1 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights:[20]
| English Translation | All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |
|---|---|
| Spanish (Latin) | Todos los seres humanos nacen libres e iguales en dignidad y derechos y, dotados como están de razón y conciencia, deben comportarse fraternalmente los unos con los otros. |
| Aljamiado | تُذُشْ لُشْ شَارَاشْ اُمَنُشْ نَسَانْ لِبرَاشْ ءَا اِغُوَلَاشْ ءَان دِغْنِتَذْ اِ دَارَاجُّشْ، اِ دُتَذُشْ كُمُ ءَاشْتَنْ دَا رَّسُنْ اِ كُنْسِيَانسِيَ، دَابَانْ كُنْبُّرتَرْشَا ڢْرَتَارْنَلْمَانْتَا لُشْ اُنُشْ كُنْ لُشْ اُتْرُشْ. |
| Ladino | טודﬞוס לוס סיריס אומאנוס נאסין ליבﬞריס אי איגואליס אין דיניידﬞאדﬞ אי דיריגﬞוס אי, דוטאדﬞוס קומו איסטאן די ראזון אי קונסיינסיה, דיבﬞין קומפורטארסין פﬞראטירנאלמינטי לוס אונוס קון לוס אוטרוס. |
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