The complex was begun in 1238 byMuhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar, the firstNasrid emir and founder of theEmirate of Granada, the last Muslim state ofAl-Andalus.[3][4] It was built on the Sabika hill, an outcrop of theSierra Nevada which had been the site of earlier fortresses and of the 11th-century palace ofSamuel ibn Naghrillah.[4][5] Later Nasrid rulers continuously modified the site. The most significant construction campaigns, which gave the royal palaces much of their defining character, took place in the 14th century during the reigns ofYusuf I andMuhammad V.[6][7] After the conclusion of the ChristianReconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court ofFerdinand and Isabella (whereChristopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered. In 1526,Charles V commissioned a newRenaissance-style palace in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid palaces, but it was left uncompleted in the early 17th century. The site fell into disrepair over the following centuries, with its buildings occupied bysquatters. Thetroops of Napoleon destroyed parts of it in 1812. After this, the Alhambra became an attraction for British, American, and other EuropeanRomantic travellers. The most influential of them wasWashington Irving, whoseTales of the Alhambra (1832) brought international attention to the site.[8] The Alhambra was one of the first Islamic monuments to become the object of modern scientific study and has been the subject of numerous restorations since the 19th century.[9][10] It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions and aUNESCO World Heritage Site.[1]
During the Nasrid era, the Alhambra was a self-contained city separate from the rest of Granada below.[6] It contained most of the amenities of a Muslim city such as aFriday mosque,hammams (public baths), roads, houses, artisan workshops, atannery, and a sophisticated water supply system.[11][12] As a royal city and citadel, it contained at least six major palaces, most of them located along the northern edge where they commanded views over theAlbaicín quarter.[6] The most famous and best-preserved are theMexuar, theComares Palace, thePalace of the Lions, and thePartal Palace, which form the main attraction to visitors today. The other palaces are known from historical sources and from modern excavations.[13][14] At the Alhambra's western tip is theAlcazaba fortress. Multiple smaller towers and fortified gates are also located along the Alhambra's walls. Outside the Alhambra walls and located nearby to the east is theGeneralife, a former Nasrid country estate and summer palace accompanied by historicorchards and modern landscaped gardens.[15][12]
The architecture of the Nasrid palaces reflects the tradition ofMoorish architecture developed over previous centuries.[16][14] It is characterized by the use of thecourtyard as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized.[17] Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as areflective pool or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of the building and was executed primarily withtile mosaics on lower walls andcarved stucco on the upper walls.Geometric patterns,vegetal motifs, andArabic inscriptions were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known asmuqarnas, was used for three-dimensional features likevaulted ceilings.[13][17]
Panorama of the Alhambra from Mirador de San Nicolas. From left to right:Generalife,Veleta mountain, Nasrid Palaces,Palace of Charles V, andAlcazabaNight view of Alhambra from Mirador de San NicolasPanorama of the Alhambra
Most of the names used today for specific structures and locations within the Alhambra are imaginative names coined after themediaeval period, often in the 19th century.[19][6] The original Arabic names of the Nasrid-era buildings are not known, although some scholars have proposed connections between certain buildings and some of the names mentioned in historical sources.[6]
Remains of thePuente del Cadí (formerlyBāb al-Difāf), an 11th-century Zirid fortification that enabled soldiers on the Sabika hill to access the river during times of siege
The evidence for a Roman presence is unclear but archaeologists have found remains of ancient foundations on the Sabika hill.[20] A fortress or citadel, probably dating from the Visigothic period, existed on the hill in the 9th century.[5] The first reference to theQal‘at al-Ḥamra was during the battles between the Arabs and theMuladies during the rule of‘Abdallah ibn Muhammad (r. 888–912). According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The first reference toal-Ḥamrāʼ came in lines of poetry attached to an arrow shot over the ramparts, recorded byIbn Hayyan (d. 1076):
"Deserted and roofless are the houses of our enemies; Invaded by the autumnal rains, traversed by impetuous winds; Let them within the red castle (Kalat al hamra) hold their mischievous councils; Perdition and woe surround them on every side."[21]
At the beginning of the 11th century, the region of Granada was dominated by the Zirids, aSanhajaBerber group and offshoot of theZirids who ruled parts ofNorth Africa. When theCaliphate of Córdoba collapsed after 1009 and theFitna (civil war) began, the Zirid leaderZawi ben Ziri established an independent kingdom for himself, theTaifa of Granada.[4] The Zirids built their citadel and palace, known as theal-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma ("Old Citadel" or "Old Palace"), on the hill now occupied by theAlbaicín neighbourhood.[4][5] It was connected to two other fortresses on the Sabika and Mauror hills to the south.[5] On theDarro River, between the Zirid citadel and the Sabika hill, was asluice gate calledBāb al-Difāf ("Gate of the Tambourines"),[a] which could be closed to retain water if needed.[22][23] This gate was part of the fortification connecting the Zirid citadel with the fortress on the Sabika hill and it also formed part of acoracha (from Arabicqawraja), a type of fortification allowing soldiers from the fortress to access the river and bring back water even during times of siege.[22] The Sabika hill fortress, also known asal-Qasaba al-Jadida ("the New Citadel"), was later used for the foundations of the currentAlcazaba of the Alhambra.[5][24][25] Under the Zirid kingsHabbus ibn Maksan andBadis, the most powerful figure in the kingdom was theJewish administrator known asSamuel ha-Nagid (inHebrew) or Isma'il ibn Nagrilla (in Arabic).[26] Samuel built his own palace on the Sabika hill, possibly on the site of the current palaces, although nothing remains of it. It reportedly included gardens and water features.[24][b]
The period of theTaifa kingdoms, during which the Zirids ruled, came to an end with the conquest ofal-Andalus by theAlmoravids from North Africa during the late 11th century. In the mid-12th century they were followed by theAlmohads. After 1228 Almohad rule collapsed and local rulers and factions emerged again across the territory of Al-Andalus.[32] With theReconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms ofCastile andAragon – under kingsFerdinand III andJames I, respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus. Castile capturedCordoba in 1236 andSeville in 1248. Meanwhile,Ibn al-Ahmar (Muhammad I) established what became the last and longest reigningMuslim dynasty in the Iberian peninsula, theNasrids, who ruled theEmirate of Granada.[33] Ibn al-Ahmar was a relatively new political player in the region and likely came from a modest background, but he was able to win the support and consent of multiple Muslim settlements under threat from the Castilian advance.[34]
Upon settling in Granada in 1238, Ibn al-Ahmar initially resided in the old citadel of the Zirids on the Albaicin hill, but that same year he began construction of the Alhambra as a new residence and citadel.[4][5] According to an Arabic manuscript since published as theAnónimo de Madrid y Copenhague,[35]
This year, 1238 Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra". He examined it, marked the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of directing the work, and before that year had passed, the construction of the ramparts was completed; water was brought in from the river and a channel carrying the water was built (...)
During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed ofaqueducts and water channels that provided water for the complex and for other nearby countryside palaces such as theGeneralife.[36][37] Previously, the old fortresses on the hill had been dependent on rainwater collected from the cistern near the Alcazaba and on what could be brought up from the Darro River below.[37][38] The creation of the Sultan's Canal (Arabic:ساقلتة السلطان,romanized: Saqiyat al-Sultan), which brought water from the mountains to the east, solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive andascetic structure. This first hydraulic system was expanded afterwards and included two long water channels and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau.[37]
The only elements preserved from the time of Ibn al-Ahmar are some of the fortification walls, particularly the Alcazaba at the western end of the complex.[39][6] Ibn al-Ahmar did not have time to complete any major new palaces and he may have initially lived in one of the towers of the Alcazaba, before later moving to a modest house on the site of the currentPalace of Charles V.[40] Later Nasrid rulers after Ibn al-Ahmar continuously modified the site. Along with the fragile materials themselves, which needed regular repairs, this makes the exact chronology of its development difficult to determine.[41][12]
The oldest major palace for which some remains have been preserved is the structure known as thePalacio del Partal Alto, in an elevated location near the centre of the complex, which probably dates from the reign of Ibn al-Ahmar's son,Muhammad II (r. 1273–1302).[39] To the south was the Palace of the Abencerrajes, and to the east was another private palace, known as thePalace of the Convent of San Francisco,[c] both of which were probably also originally constructed during the time of Muhammad II.[39]Muhammad III (r. 1302–1309) erected thePartal Palace, parts of which are still standing today, as well as the Alhambra's main (congregational) mosque (on the site of the current Church of Santa Maria de la Alhambra).[39][6] The Partal Palace is the earliest known palace to be built along the northern walls of the complex, with views onto the city below.[39] It is also the oldest Nasrid palace still standing today.[43]
Isma'il I (r. 1314–1325) undertook a significant remodelling of the Alhambra. His reign marked the beginning of the "classical" period of Nasrid architecture, during which many major monuments in the Alhambra were begun and decorative styles were consolidated.[44][45][5] Isma'il decided to build a new palace complex just east of the Alcazaba to serve as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known as theQaṣr al-Sultan orDār al-Mulk.[44] The core of this complex was theComares Palace, while another wing of the palace, theMexuar, extended to the west.[46] The Comares Baths are the best-preserved element from this initial construction, as the rest of the palace was further modified by his successors. Near the main mosque Isma'il I also created theRawda, the dynastic mausoleum of the Nasrids, of which only partial remains are preserved.[39]Yusuf I (r. 1333–1354) carried out further work on the Comares Palace, including the construction of the Hall of Ambassadors and other works around the current Mexuar. He also built the Alhambra's main gate, thePuerta de la Justicia, and theTorre de la Cautiva, one of several small towers with richly-decorated rooms along the northern walls.[47][6]
TheCourt of the Lions in 1871. This palace, still preserved today, was built during the second reign ofMuhammad V (1362–1391).
Muhammad V's reign (1354–1391, with interruptions) marked the political and cultural apogee of the Nasrid emirate as well as the apogee of Nasrid architecture.[48][17] Particularly during his second reign (after 1362), there was a stylistic shift towards more innovative architectural layouts and an extensive use of complexmuqarnas vaulting.[17][45][49] His most significant contribution to the Alhambra was the construction of thePalace of the Lions to the east of the Comares Palace in an area previously occupied by gardens. He also remodelled the Mexuar, created the highly decorated "Comares Façade" in thePatio del Cuarto Dorado, and redecorated the Court of the Myrtles, giving these areas much of their final appearance.[50]
After Muhammad V, relatively little major construction work occurred in the Alhambra. One exception is theTorre de las Infantas, which dates from the time ofMuhammad VII (1392–1408).[39] The 15th century saw the Nasrid dynasty in decline and in turmoil, with few significant construction projects and a more repetitive, less innovative style of architecture.[51][45]
The last Nasrid sultan,Muhammad XII of Granada, surrendered the Emirate of Granada in January 1492, without the Alhambra itself being attacked, when the forces of theCatholic Monarchs, KingFerdinand II of Aragon and QueenIsabella I of Castile, took the surrounding territory with a force of overwhelming numbers. Muhammad XII moved the remains of his ancestors from the complex, as was verified byLeopoldo Torres Balbás in 1925, when he found seventy empty tombs.[52] The remains are now likely to be located in Mondújar in the principality ofLecrín.[53][54]
After the conquest, the Alhambra became a royal palace and property of theSpanish Crown. Isabella and Ferdinand initially took up residence here and stayed in Granada for several months, up until 25 May 1492.[55] It was during this stay that two major events happened. On 31 March the monarchs signed theAlhambra Decree, which ordered theexpulsion of all Jews in Spain who refused to convert.[56][55]Christopher Columbus, who had also been present to witness the surrender of Granada, presented his plans for anexpedition across the Atlantic to the monarchs in the Hall of Ambassadors and on 17 April they signed the contract which set the terms for the expedition which landed in theAmericas later that year.[55][57]
TheTorre de la Polvóra at the Alcazaba, an example of a tower reinforced with curved ramparts in the 16th century to better defend against modern artillery[58]
The new Christian rulers began to make additions and alterations to the palace complex. The governorship of the Alhambra was entrusted to the Tendilla family, who were given one of the Nasrid palaces, thePalacio del Partal Alto (near the Partal Palace), to use as family residence.Iñigo López de Mendoza y Quiñones (d. 1515), the secondCount ofTendilla, was present in Ferdinand II's entourage when Muhammad XII surrendered the keys to the Alhambra and he became the Alhambra's first Spanish governor.[59] For almost 24 years after the conquest, he made repairs and modifications to its fortifications in order to better protect it againstgunpowder artillery attacks. Multiple towers and fortifications – such as theTorre de Siete Suelos, theTorre de las Cabezas, and theTorres Bermejas – were built or reinforced in this period, as seen by the addition of semi-roundbastions.[59] In 1512 the Count was also awarded the property ofMondéjar and subsequently passed on the title ofMarquis of Mondéjar to his descendants.[59]
The Renaissance-stylePalace of Charles V, begun in 1527 but left unfinished after 1637. This 1890 photograph shows the roof still missing over the upper floor.
Charles V (r. 1516–1556) visited the Alhambra in 1526 with his wifeIsabella of Portugal and decided to convert it into a royal residence for his use. He rebuilt or modified portions of the Nasrid palaces to serve as royal apartments, a process which began in 1528 and was completed in 1537.[60][61] He also demolished a part of the Comares Palace to make way for a monumental new palace, known as the Palace of Charles V, designed in theRenaissance style of the period. Construction of the palace began in 1527 but it was eventually left unfinished after 1637.[62]
The governorship of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family came to an end in 1717–1718, whenPhilip V confiscated the family's properties in the Alhambra and dismissed the Marquis of Mondéjar, José de Mendoza Ibáñez de Segovia (1657–1734), from his position as mayor (alcaide) of the Alhambra, in retaliation for the Marquis opposing him in theWar of the Spanish Succession.[63] The departure of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family marked the beginning of the Alhambra's most severe period of decline. During this period the Spanish state dedicated few resources to it and its management was taken over by self-interested local governors who lived with their families inside the neglected palaces.[64]
Over subsequent years the Alhambra was further damaged. Between 1810 and 1812 Granada was occupied byNapoleon's army during thePeninsular War.[65] The French troops, under the command ofCount Sebastiani,[66] occupied the Alhambra as a fortified position and caused significant damage to the monument.[67] Upon evacuating the city, they attempted to dynamite the whole complex to prevent it from being re-used as a fortified position. They successfully blew up eight towers before the remaining fuses were disabled by Spanish soldier José Garcia, whose actions saved what remains today.[67] In 1821, an earthquake caused further damage.[66] In the early 19th century, the site was described as being occupied by prisoners,disabled soldiers and other marginalized people.[68][69]
A Court in the Alhambra at the Time of the Moors, Edwin Lord Weeks, 1876
As early as the second half of the 18th century, the Alhambra's appearance and details began to be documented by Spanish illustrators and officials.[70] By the first decade of the 19th century, other European writers began to bring attention to it[71] and the site subsequently became an object of fascination for WesternRomanticist writers, whose publications frequently sought to evoke a contrast between the ornate architecture of the former Moorish palaces and their current state of ruin and neglect.[68][72] This also coincided with a growing European interest in theOrient (Orientialism), which encouraged an emphasis onexoticism and on the "oriental" attributes of the Alhambra.[68][73] This rediscovery of the Alhambra was led mostly by French, British, and German writers.[74] In 1830, the American writerWashington Irving lived in Granada and wrote hisTales of the Alhambra, first published in 1832, which played a major role in spurring international interest in southern Spain and in its Islamic-era monuments like the Alhambra.[65][75] Other artists and intellectuals, such asJohn Frederick Lewis,Richard Ford,François-René de Chateaubriand, andOwen Jones, helped make the Alhambra into an icon of the era with their writings and illustrations during the 19th century.[75][76][77]
Pavilion in the Court of the Lions in 19th-century photo, showing the "oriental" dome added by Rafael Contreras in 1859, later removed byLeopoldo Torres Balbás
Restoration work on the Alhambra was undertaken in 1828 by the architect José Contreras, endowed in 1830 byFerdinand VII. After the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued by his son Rafael (died 1890) and his grandson Mariano Contreras (died 1912).[66][78] The Contreras family members continued to be the most important architects and conservators of the Alhambra up until 1907.[79] During this period, they generally followed a theory of "stylistic restoration", which favoured the construction and addition of elements to make a monument "complete" but not necessarily corresponding to any historical reality. They added elements which they deemed to be representative of what they thought was an "Arabic style", emphasizing the Alhambra's purported "Oriental" character. For example, in 1858–1859 Rafael Contreras and Juan Pugnaire added Persian-looking spherical domes to the Court of the Lions and to the northernportico of the Court of the Myrtles, even though these had nothing to do with Nasrid architecture.[79][80]
In 1868, arevolution deposed Isabella II and the government seized the properties of the Spanish monarchy, including the Alhambra. In 1870 the Alhambra was declared aNational Monument of Spain and the state allocated a budget for its conservation, overseen by the Provincial Commission of Monuments.[81] Mariano Contreras, the last of the Contreras architects to serve as director of conservation of the Alhambra, was appointed as architectural curator in April 1890. His tenure was controversial and his conservation strategy attracted criticism from other authorities.[82] In September 1890, a fire destroyed a large part of theSala de la Barca in the Comares Palace, which highlighted the site's vulnerability.[82][83] A report was commissioned in 1903. This resulted in the creation of a "Special Commission" in 1905. The Special Commission was tasked to oversee conservation and restoration of the Alhambra. The commission ultimately failed to exercise control due to friction with Contreras.[82][79] In 1907, Mariano Contreras was replaced with Modesto Cendoya, whose work was also criticized. Cendoya began many excavations in search of new artifacts but often left these works unfinished. He restored some important elements of the site, like the water supply system, but neglected others.[84][79][85] Due to continued friction with Cendoya, the Special Commission was dissolved in 1913 and replaced with the council (Patronato) of the Alhambra in 1914, which was charged again with overseeing the site's conservation and Cendoya's work. In 1915, it was linked directly to the Directorate-General of Fine Arts of the Ministry of Public Education (later the Ministry of National Education).[85][84][79] Like Mariano Contreras before him, Cendoya continued to clash with the supervisory body and to obstruct their control. He was eventually dismissed from his post in 1923.[85]
The Alcazaba before and after 20th-century restoration work (view of theTorre Quebrada)
After Cendoya,Leopoldo Torres Balbás was appointed as chief architect from 1923 to 1936. The appointment of Torres Balbás, a trainedarchaeologist andart historian, marked a definitive shift to a more scientific and systematic approach to the Alhambra's conservation.[79][85] He endorsed the principles of the 1931Athens Charter for the Restoration of Monuments, which emphasized regular maintenance, respect for the work of the past, legal protection for heritage monuments, and the legitimacy of modern techniques and materials in restoration so long as these were visually recognizable.[79] Many of the buildings in the Alhambra were affected by his work. Some of the inaccurate changes and additions made by the Contreras architects were reversed.[86][87] The young architect "opened arcades that had been walled up, re-excavated filled-in pools, replaced missing tiles, completed inscriptions that lacked portions of their stuccoed lettering, and installed a ceiling in the still unfinished palace of Charles V".[88] He also carried out systematic archaeological excavations in various parts of the Alhambra, unearthing lost Nasrid structures such as thePalacio del Partal Alto and the Palace of the Abencerrajes which provided deeper insight into the former palace-city as a whole.[79][89]
The work of Torres Balbás was continued by his assistant, Francisco Prieto Moreno, who was the chief architectural curator from 1936 to 1970.[90] In 1940, a new Council of the Alhambra was created to oversee the site, which has remained in charge ever since.[d] In 1984 the central government inMadrid transferred responsibility for the site to theRegional Government of Andalusia and in 1986 new statutes and documents were developed to regulate the planning and protection of the site.[92] In 1984 the Alhambra and Generalife were also listed as aUNESCO World Heritage Site.[1] The Alhambra is now one of the most popular tourist destinations in Spain. Research, archaeological investigations, and restoration works have also remained ongoing into the 21st century.[10]
The Alhambra site is about 700–740 m (2,300–2,430 ft) in length and about 200–205 m (660–670 ft) at its greatest width.[3][93] It extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 m2 (1,530,000 sq ft) or 35 acres.[93] It stands on a narrow promontory overlooking theVega or Plain of Granada and carved by the riverDarro on its north side as it descends from theSierra Nevada.[94] The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stone- reinforced construction (tapial calicastrado) its characteristic hue and is at the root of the name of 'the Red Hill'.[95]
The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcazaba, a large fortress overlooking the city. Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a principal access via thePuerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice) onto a largesouq or public market square facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development.[95] From thePuerta del Vino (Wine Gate) ran theCalle Real (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial spine into a southern residential quarter, withmosques,hamams (bathhouses) and diverse functional establishments, and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albaicín.[96]
The rest of the plateau comprises a number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by afortified wall, with thirteen defensive towers, some such as theTorre de la Infanta andTorre de laCautiva containing elaborate vertical palaces in miniature.[96] The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Sabika Valley, containing the Alhambra Park, lies on the west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Salmerón Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when the trees are bare.[97]
Layout and important features: 1) Alcazaba; 2) Puerta de las Armas; 3) Puente del Cadí; 4) Torres Bermejas; 5) Plaza de los Aljibes; 6) Puerta del Vino; 7) Puerta de la Justicia; 8) Palace of Charles V; 9) Mexuar courtyards; 10) Mexuar main hall; 11) Comares Palace; 12) Palace of the Lions; 13) Lindaraja Courtyard; 14) Peinador de la Reina; 15) Partal Palace; 16) Palacio del Partal Alto; 17) Rawda mausoleum; 18) Church of Santa Maria; 19) Baths of the Mosque; 20) Palace of the Abencerrajes; 21) Palace of the Convent of San Francisco; 22) Torre de los Picos; 23) Torre de la Cautiva; 24) Torre de las Infantas; 25) Torre del Agua; 26) Puerta de los Siete Suelos; 27) Generalife Palace
Mullioned windows of the Hall of the Two Sisters in the Alhambra, byJean Laurent, c. 1874. Stucco decoration can be seen on the upper walls while geometric tile mosaic is seen below.
The design and decoration of the Nasrid palaces are a continuation ofMoorish (western Islamic) architecture from earlier centuries but developed their own characteristics.[98] The combination of carefully-proportioned courtyards, water features, gardens, arches on slender columns, and intricately-sculptedstucco andtile decoration gives Nasrid architecture qualities that are described as ethereal and intimate.[99][100][101][102] Walls were built mostly inrammed earth,lime concrete, orbrick and then covered withplaster, while wood (mostlypine) was used for roofs, ceilings, doors, and window shutters.[99][103]
Buildings were designed to be seen from within, with their decoration focused on the inside.[99] The basic unit of Nasrid palace architecture was a rectangularcourtyard with a pool, fountain, or water channel at its centre.[17] Courtyards were flanked on two or four sides by halls, often preceded byarcaded porticoes. Many of these structures featured amirador, a room projecting from the exterior commanding scenic views of gardens or of the city.[5][98] Buildings were designed with a mathematical proportional system that gives them a harmonious visual quality.[99][104] The layout of the courtyards, the distribution of windows, and the use of water features were designed with the climate in mind, cooling and ventilating the environment in summer while minimizing cold drafts and maximizing sunlight in winter.[99][105] Upper-floor rooms were smaller and more enclosed, making them more suited for use during the winter.[99] Courtyards were usually aligned in a north–south direction which allows the main halls to receive direct sunlight at midday during the winter, while during the summer the higher midday sun is blocked by the position and depth of the porticos fronting these halls.[106][107]
Little is known about the architects and craftsmen who built the Alhambra, but more is known about theDīwān al-Ins͟hā', orchancery.[108] This institution seems to have played an increasingly important role in the design of buildings, probably because inscriptions came to feature so prominently in their decoration.[109][110] The head of the chancery was often also thevizier (prime minister) of the sultan. Although not exactly architects, the terms of office of many individuals in these positions coincide with the major phases of construction in the Alhambra, which suggests that they played a role in leading construction projects.[110] The most important figures who held these positions, such asIbn al-Jayyab,Ibn al-Khatib, andIbn Zamrak, also composed much of the poetry that adorns the walls of the Alhambra. Ibn al-Jayyab served as head of the chancery at various times between 1295 and 1349 under six sultans from Muhammad II to Yusuf I.[109][110] Ibn al-Khatib served as both head of the chancery and as vizier for various periods between 1332 and 1371, under the sultans Yusuf I and Muhammad V.[109][110] Ibn Zamrak served as vizier and head of the chancery for periods between 1354 and 1393, under Muhammad V and Muhammad VII.[109][110][111]
Stucco-carvedmuqarnas (ormocárabes) in the Palace of the Lions
Carved stucco (oryesería in Spanish) and mosaic tilework (zilīj orzellij in Arabic;[e]alicatado in Spanish[112]) were used for wall decoration, while ceilings were generally made in wood, which could be carved and painted in turn. Tile mosaics and wooden ceilings often featuregeometric motifs. Tilework was generally used for lower walls or for floors, while stucco was used for upper zones.[99] Stucco was typically carved with vegetalarabesque motifs (ataurique in Spanish, from Arabic:التوريق,romanized: al-tawrīq,lit. 'foliage'), epigraphic motifs, geometric motifs, orsebka motifs.[113][114][115] It could be further sculpted into three-dimensionalmuqarnas (mocárabes in Spanish). Arabic inscriptions, a feature especially characteristic of the Alhambra, were carved along the walls and includedQur'anic excerpts, poetry by Nasrid court poets, and the repetition of the Nasrid motto "wa la ghalib illa-llah" (Arabic:ولا غالب إلا الله,lit. 'And there is no victor but God').[113][114]
Example of a typical Nasridcapital (from theSala del Mexuar), with some of its original colours preserved
White marble quarried fromMacael (inAlmeria province) was also used to make fountains and slender columns.[99][116] Thecapitals of columns typically consisted of a lower cylindrical section sculpted with stylizedacanthus leaves, an upper cubic section with vegetal or geometric motifs, and inscriptions (like the Nasrid motto) running along the base or the top edge.[99]
While the stucco decoration, wooden ceilings, and marble capitals of the Alhambra often appear colourless or monochrome today, they were originally painted in bright colours.[117][99]Primary colours – red, blue, and (in place of yellow) gold – were the most prominent and were juxtaposed to achieve a certain aesthetic balance, while other colours were used in more nuanced ways in the background.[99][118][119]
Calligraphy in the Hall of Ambassadors: above is a band of inscriptions that repeats the Nasrid motto ("And There is no victor but God") incursive script, while below is a larger cartouche containing an inscription in "Knotted"Kufic
The Alhambra features various styles of theArabic epigraphy that developed under the Nasrid dynasty, and particularly under Yusuf I and Muhammad V.[120]José Miguel Puerta Vílchez compares the walls of the Alhambra to the pages of a manuscript, drawing similarities between thezilīj-covereddados and the geometric manuscript illuminations, and the epigraphical forms in the palace to calligraphic motifs in contemporary Arabic manuscripts.[121] Inscriptions typically ran in vertical or horizontal bands or they were set inside cartouches of round or rectangular shape.[122]
Most major inscriptions in the Alhambra use theNaskhi or cursive script, which was the most common script used in writing after the early Islamic period.[123]Thuluth was a derivation of the cursive script often used for more pompous or formal contexts; favoured, for example, in the preambles of documents prepared by the Nasrid chancery.[122] Many inscriptions in the Alhambra were composed in a mixedNaskhi-Thuluth script.[122][118] Bands of cursive script often alternated with friezes or cartouches of Kufic script. Kufic is the oldest form of Arabic calligraphy, but by the 13th century Kufic scripts in the western Islamic world became increasingly stylized in architectural contexts and could be nearly illegible.[123][124] In the Alhambra, there are many examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots.[118][125] The extensions of these letters could turn into strips that continued and formed more abstract motifs, or sometimes formed the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription.[123]
The texts of the Alhambra include "devout, regal, votive, and Qur'anic phrases and sentences," formed into arabesques, carved into wood and marble, and glazed onto tiles.[121] Poets of the Nasrid court, including Ibn al-Khatīb and Ibn Zamrak, composed poems for the palace.[121][126] The inscriptions of the Alhambra are also unique for their frequent self-referential nature and use ofpersonification. Some inscribed poems, such as those in the Palace of the Lions, talk about the palace or room in which they're situated and are written in the first person, as if the room itself was speaking to the reader.[127][128] Most of the poetry is inscribed in Nasrid cursive script, while foliate and floral Kufic inscriptions—often formed into arches, columns, enjambments, and "architectural calligrams"—are generally used as decorative elements.[121] Kuficcalligrams, particularly of the words "blessing" (بركةbaraka) and "felicity" (يمنyumn), are used as decorative motifs in arabesque throughout the palace.[121] Like the rest of the original stucco decoration, many inscriptions were originally painted and enhanced with colours. Studies indicate that the letters were often painted in gold or silver, or in white with black outlines, which would have made them stand out on the decorated backgrounds that were often painted in red, blue, or turquoise (with other colours mixed into the details).[118]
وفتحت بالسيف الجزيرة "And the peninsula was conquered with the sword"
Epigraphic samples from theCourt of the Myrtles: whatMuhammad Kurd Ali described as Andalusimushabbak (sinuous) script (خط أندلسي مُشَبَّك), or what Western sources refer to as Nasrid cursive (left and centre images)[129] and floralKufic script (right).
ThePuerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice), the main southern gate to the Alhambra, built byYusuf I in 1348
The main gate of the Alhambra is the largePuerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice), known in Arabic asBab al-Shari'a (Arabic:باب الشريعة,lit. 'Gate ofShari'a (law)'), which served as the main entrance on the south side of the walled complex. It was built in 1348 during the reign of Yusuf I.[130][131][132] The gate consists of a large horseshoe arch leading to a steep ramp passing through abent passage. The passage turns 90 degrees to the left and then 90 degrees to the right, with an opening above where defenders could throw projectiles onto any attackers below. The image of a hand, whose five fingers symbolized theFive Pillars of Islam, is carved above the archway on the exterior façade, while the image of a key, another symbol of faith, is carved above the archway on the inner façade. A Christian-era sculpture of theVirgin andChrist Child was inserted later into another niche just inside the gate.[133] Near the outside of the gate is thePilar de Carlos V, a Renaissance-style fountain built in 1524 with some further alterations in 1624.[134]
At the end of the passage coming from thePuerta de la Justicia is thePlaza de los Aljibes ('Place of the Cisterns'), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Nasrid Palaces. The plaza is named after a large cistern dating to around 1494, commissioned by Iñigo López de Mondoza y Quiñones. The cistern was one of the first works carried out in the Alhambra after the 1492 conquest and it filled what was previously a gully between the Alcazaba and the palaces.[135] On the east side of the square is thePuerta del Vino (Wine Gate) which leads to the Palace of Charles V and to the former residential neighbourhoods (themedina) of the Alhambra.[131][136] The gate's construction is attributed to the reign of Muhammad III, although the decoration dates from different periods. Both the inner and outer façades of the gate are embellished with ceramic decoration filing the spandrels of the arches and stucco decoration above. On the western side of the gate is the carving of a key symbol like the one on thePuerta de la Justicia.[137]
ThePuerta de las Armas ('Gate of Arms'), the main northern gate of the Alhambra, from the 13th century
The other main gate of the Alhambra was thePuerta de las Armas ('Gate of Arms'), located on the north side of the Alcazaba, from which a walled ramp leads towards thePlaza de los Aljibes and the Nasrid Palaces. This was originally the main access point to the complex for the regular residents of the city, since it was accessible from the Albaicín side, but after the Christian conquest thePuerta de la Justicia was favoured by Ferdinand and Isabella.[131] The gate, one of the earliest structures built in the Alhambra in the 13th century, is one of the Alhambra structures that bear the most resemblance to the Almohad architectural tradition that preceded the Nasrids. The exterior façade of the gate is decorated with a polylobed moulding with glazed tiles inside a rectangularalfiz frame. Inside the gate's passage is a dome that is painted to simulate the appearance of red brick, a decorative feature characteristic of the Nasrid period.[138]
Two other exterior gates existed, both located further east. On the north side is thePuerta del Arrabal ('Arrabal Gate'), which opens onto theCuesta de los Chinos ('Slope of the Pebbles'), the ravine between the Alhambra and the Generalife. It was probably created under Muhammad II and served the first palaces of the Alhambra which were built in this area during his reign. It underwent numerous modifications in the later Christian era of the Alhambra.[139][131] On the south side is thePuerta de los Siete Suelos ('Gate of Seven Floors'), which was almost entirely destroyed by the explosions set off by the departing French troops in 1812. The present gate was reconstructed in the 1970s with help of remaining fragments and of multiple oldengravings that illustrate the former gate. The original gate was probably built in the mid-14th century and its original Arabic name wasBab al-Gudur. It would have been the main entrance serving themedina, the area occupied by industries and the houses of workers inside the Alhambra. It was also through here that the Catholic Monarchs first entered the Alhambra on January 2, 1492.[140][131]
The Alcazaba or citadel is the oldest part of the Alhambra today. It was the centrepiece of the complicated system of fortifications that protected the area. Its tallest tower, the 26 m (85 ft) highTorre del Homenaje ('Tower of Homage'), was thekeep and military command post of the complex. It may have also been the first residence of Ibn al-Ahmar inside the Alhambra while the complex was being constructed.[141][142] The westernmost tower, the 25 m (82 ft) highTorre de la Vela, acted as a watch tower. The flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised above it as a symbol of the Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492.[143] A bell was added on the tower soon afterward and for centuries it was rung at regular times every day and on special occasions. In 1843 the tower became part of the city's coat of arms.[144] Inside the enclosure of the inner fortress was a residential district that housed the elite guards of the Alhambra. It contained urban amenities like a communal kitchen, ahammam, and a water supply cistern, as well as multiple subterranean chambers which served asdungeons andsilos.[145]
The royal palace complex consists of three main parts, from west to east: the Mexuar, the Comares Palace, and the Palace of the Lions.[f][148][149] Collectively, these palaces are also known as theCasa Real Vieja ('Old Royal Palace'), to distinguish them from the newer palaces erected next to them during the Christian Spanish period.[150][151]
View of the Mexuar today (with the Comares Tower also visible behind it)
The Mexuar is the westernmost part of the palace complex. It was analogous to themashwars (ormechouars) of royal palaces in North Africa.[152] It was first built as part of the larger complex begun by Isma'il I which included the Comares Palace. It housed many of the administrative and more public functions of the palace, such as the chancery and the treasury. Its layout consisted of two consecutive courtyards followed by a main hall, all aligned along a central axis from west to east. Little remains of the two western courtyards of the Mexuar today, except for their foundations, a portico, and the water basin of a fountain. The main hall, known as theSala del Mexuar or Council Hall, served as a throne hall where the sultan received and judged petitions. This area also granted access to the Comares Palace via theCuarto Dorado section on the east side of the Council Hall. Multiple parts of the Mexuar were significantly modified in the post-Reconquista period; notably, theSala del Mexuar was converted into a Christianchapel and additions were made to theCuarto Dorado to convert it into a residence. Many of these additions were later removed during modern restorations in the 19th and 20th centuries.[153][154]
The Comares Palace was the core of a large palace complex begun by Isma'il I in the early 13th century and subsequently modified and refurbished by Yusuf I and Muhammad V over the course of the same century.[14] This new palace complex served as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known in Arabic as theQaṣr al-Sultan orDār al-Mulk.[44] The Comares Palace was accessed from the west through the Mexuar. An internal façade, known as the Comares Façade, stands on the south side of thePatio de Cuarto Dorado ('Courtyard of the Gilded Room') at the east edge of the Mexuar. This highly decorated symmetrical façade, with two doors, was the entrance to the palace and likely served in some ceremonial functions.[156][157][158]
Ceiling of the Hall of the Ambassadors
The Comares Palace itself is centred around thePatio de los Arrayanes ('Court of the Myrtles'), a courtyard measuring 23 to 23.5 metres wide and 36.6 metres long, with its long axis aligned roughly north-to-south.[159] At the middle, aligned with the main axis of the court, is a widereflective pool. The pool measures 34 metres long and 7,10 metres wide.[160] The myrtle bushes that are the court's namesake grow in hedges along either side of this pool. Two ornate porticos are situated at the north and south ends of the court, leading to further halls and rooms behind them. The court's decoration contained elevenqasā'id byIbn Zamrak, eight of which remain.[121] Annexed to the east side of the palace are the Comares Baths, a royal hammam that is exceptionally well-preserved.[161]
On the north side of the Court of the Myrtles, inside the massive Comares Tower, is theSalón de los Embajadores ('Hall of the Ambassadors'), the largest room in the Alhambra. It is accessed by passing through theSala de la Barca,[g] a wide rectangular hall behind the northern portico of the court. The Hall of the Ambassadors is a square chamber measuring 11.3 metres per side and rising to a height of 18.2 metres.[165] This was the throne room or audience chamber of the sultan.[166] The sultan's throne was placed opposite the entrance in front of a recessed double-arched window at the back of the hall.[167] In addition to the extensive tile and stucco decoration of the walls, the interior culminates in a large domed ceiling. The ceiling is made of 8017 interlinked pieces of wood that form an abstract geometric representation of theseven heavens.[167][168][158] The hall and its tower project from the walls of the palace, with windows providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was an enlarged version of amirador, a room from which the palace's inhabitants could gaze outward to the surrounding landscape.[146]
The Palace of the Lions is one of the most famous palaces inIslamic architecture and exemplifies the apogee of Nasrid architecture under the reign of Muhammad V.[17] Its central rectangular courtyard measures about 28.7 metres long and 15.6 metres wide, with its long axis aligned roughly east-to-west.[169] The arches and columns of the surrounding portico are arranged in a complex pattern of single columns alternating with groups of two or three columns, a design that was unique in Islamic architecture.[170] Two ornate pavilions stand at the east and west sides of the courtyard, while the centre is occupied by the famed Fountain of the Lions. The fountain consists of a large basin surrounded by twelve stylized lion sculptures, all carved from marble.[171] Along the rim of the fountain's basin is an inscribed poem composed by Ibn Zamrak. This praises the beauty of the fountain and the power of the lions, but it also describes their hydraulic systems and how they worked.[172]
Painted ceiling with Nasrid figures in the Hall of Kings
Four halls are arranged around the courtyard. TheSala de los Mocárabes ('Hall of themocárabes (muqarnas)'), on the west side, was damaged in 1590 by the explosion of a nearbygunpowder magazine and its ceiling was replaced by the current Baroque-style plaster vault in 1714.[173][174] TheSala de los Reyes [es] ('Hall of Kings'), on the east side, is subdivided into multiple sections covered bymuqarnas vaults. Opening behind these are several more rooms, three of which contain rounded vault ceilings covered by unique pictorial scenes painted on leather.[175][176] One painting shows ten figures, probably sultans or other important dignitaries, sitting and discussing together.[177][178][176][175] The two other paintings feature scenes of sports, hunting, and court life.[176][175] The style of painting was influenced to one extent or another by ChristianGothic art.[175][177][176][179]
On the south side of the courtyard, theSala de los Abencerrajes ('Hall of theAbencerrages') derives its name from a legend according to which the father ofBoabdil, the last sultan of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet, massacred them here.[180] It is covered by an elaboratemuqarnas vault ceiling, featuring a 16-sidedlantern cupola in the shape of aneight-pointed star, possibly symbolizing the celestial heaven.[181][182][183] On the north side of the courtyard is theSala de Dos Hermanas ('Hall of Two Sisters'), so-called because of two large slabs of marble that form part of the pavement. Its original Arabic name wasal-Qubba al-Kubrā (Arabic:القبة الكبرى,lit. 'the Great Dome'), suggesting it had a particular significance.[181] The hall is covered by one of the most remarkablemuqarnas domes inIslamic art. Themuqarnas composition consists of at least 5000prismatic pieces, unfolding from the central summit into sixteen miniature domes right above the level of the windows.[184][185]
To the north of theSala de Dos Hermanas, and accessed through it, is theMirador de Lindaraja, a small projecting room with double-arched windows on three sides which overlook the gardens below. The nameLindaraja is a corruption of Arabic'Ayn Dar 'Aisha (Arabic:عين دار عائشة,lit. 'Eye of the House of 'Aisha').[186] This small chamber has some of the most sophisticated carved stucco decoration in the Alhambra and retains original mosaic tilework that features very fine Arabic inscriptions.[187][188][184] The room is also covered by a unique vault ceiling consisting of a woodenlattice shaped into an interlacing geometric motif and filled with pieces ofcoloured glass.[187]
The Lindaraja Courtyard, formed in the 16th century
To the east of the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions is an area of Renaissance-style Christian additions dating primarily from the 16th century. Directly north of the Palace of the Lions is thePatio de Lindaraja (Lindaraja Courtyard), originally an open garden area but turned into a cloistered garden by the addition of new structures around it during the 16th century. The fountain at its centre features aBaroque pedestal made in 1626 that supports a Nasrid marble basin installed here at the same time, although a replica now replaces the original basin which is kept at the Alhambra Museum.[60][189] On the west and north sides of the courtyard, along the upper floors, are six rooms constructed for Charles V between 1528 and 1537, known as the Emperor's Chambers. The most interesting details of the rooms are a marble fireplace sculpted with the emperor's coat of arms and a ceiling of panels painted with pictures of fruits. The paintings were made around 1537 by Julio Aquiles and Alejandro Mayner.[60][61] To the west of the Lindaraja Courtyard is the smallerPatio de la Reja ('Courtyard of the Queen'), located between the Emperor's Chambers and the Comares Tower. A gallery was built around the upper floor of the courtyard between 1654 and 1655.[190]
Further north is a tower known as thePeinador de la Reina ('Queen's Robing Room'), formerly known as the Tower of Abu al-Juyyush.[87] This was originally a stand-alone fortification tower in the Alhambra walls that was probably built in the reign ofNasr (r. 1309–1314), also known as Abu al-Juyyush. Yusuf I converted it into a small palatial residence with a lantern ceiling and Muhammad V later added decoration around its entrance. Between 1528 and 1537 it was connected to the Emperor's Chambers via a new elevated gallery and an upper level was added to the tower around the existing lantern ceiling.[191][192] Between 1539 and 1546 this upper floor was painted by Julio Aquiles and Alejandro Mayner withmythological scenes, depictions of Charles V's 1535invasion of Tunis, and more formalclassical-like motifs. Later, in 1618, Nasrid-period columns and capitals from other palaces were integrated into the gallery, some of which were later moved to the Alhambra Museum.[191]
To the east of the Palace of the Lions and the Renaissance additions is the Partal Palace, a pavilion structure on the edge of the Alhambra walls. It was built by Muhammad III, which makes it the oldest surviving palace in the Alhambra today, although it has undergone many alterations since then.[193][194][195] Its south side has a portico and faces a large reflective pool, while a mirador projects from its north side over the walls. Next to it is a small but richly decorated oratory containing amihrab.[196] Beyond the Partal is an area of gardens stretching along the northern wall of the Alhambra. Several towers along this northern wall were converted into small palatial residences during the Nasrid period, including theTorre de los Picos ("Tower of the Pointed Battlements"),[197] theTorre de la Cautiva ("Tower of the Captive"), and theTorre de las Infantas ("Tower of the Princesses").[198] For tourists visiting the Alhambra today, all these areas are accessible after passing through the main Nasrid Palaces, although the palace-towers are not normally open to visitors.[199][200][201]
The palace commissioned by Charles V in the middle of the Alhambra was designed byPedro Machuca, an architect who had trained underMichelangelo inRome and who was steeped in the culture of the ItalianHigh Renaissance and of the artistic circles ofRaphael andGiulio Romano.[202][203][204] It was conceived in a contemporaryRenaissance style or "Roman" style[202] with an innovative design reflecting the architectural ideals of this period.[203][204] The construction of a monumental Italian-influenced palace in the heart of the Nasrid-built Alhambra symbolized Charles V's imperial status and the triumph of Christianity over Islam achieved by his grandparents (the Catholic Monarchs).[202] It consists of a massive square structure of stone which encloses a perfectly circular courtyard. The exterior facades are divided into two horizontal zones of decoration, withrustication below andpilasters alternating with other embellishments above.[205][203] The two main entrance portals, on the western and southern sides, have designs resemblingtriumphal arches with engaged columns. The pedestals of these columns are carved with reliefs depicting allegorical scenes such as theVictories destroying armaments, representing the emperor's imposition of a universal peace. The upper façade of the southern entrance portal features aSerlian window. Among the other details of the palace façades are a series of bronze rings orknockers which are strictly ornamental, with more Hispanic symbolic imagery such as lion and eagle heads.[205] Pedro Machuca had intended to create plazas withcolonnades on the east and west sides of the building to serve as a grand new approach to the Alhambra palaces, but these were never executed.[206][207]
Construction of the palace began in 1527. After Machuca's death in 1550, it was continued by his son Luis, who finished the facades and built the internal courtyard. Work was halted for 15 years when the1568 Morisco Rebellion began. Work was still unfinished when Philip IV visited in 1628 and the project was finally abandoned in 1637, leaving the structure without a roof.[62] It was finally completed after 1923, when Leopoldo Torres Balbás began its restoration.[207] Today, the building houses the Alhambra Museum, which holds objects and artefacts relating to the Alhambra's history, as well as the Fine Arts Museum of Granada, which houses a collection of paintings from Granada dating from the 16th to 20th centuries.[208]
The Convent of Saint Francis was built over the remains of a former Nasrid palace. The building is now aParador (state-owned hotel).
Three other major Nasrid-era palaces once existed but were largely destroyed over the centuries. The excavated remains of thePalacio del Partal Alto ("Upper Partal Palace"), also known as thePalacio del Conde del Tendilla ("Palace of the Count of Tendilla'"), are incorporated today into the Partal Gardens. The palace dates from the time of Muhammad II, with later renovations and modifications, and is the oldest palace in the Alhambra of which traces have been found.[39]
The Palace of the Convent of San Francisco (Palacio del Convento de San Francisco, also known as thePalacio de los Infantes) is named after the Convent ofSaint Francis which was installed here in 1494.[209][42] The Nasrid palace here was probably first built by Muhammad II but some surviving inscriptions suggest it was significantly remodelled by Muhammad V.[210][209] Little remains of the Nasrid structure today except for a rectangular courtyard and some of its adjoining rooms, including a richly-decorated chamber withmuqarnas vaulting. Queen Isabella I was originally buried here in 1504 before her body was moved to theRoyal Chapel near the cathedral.[211] The rest of the present-day building dates from an 18th-century remodelling of the convent and includes a cloistered courtyard. Today it serves as aParador (state-owned hotel).[42][209]
The Palace of the Abencerrajes (Palacio de los Abencerrajes) was one of the largest palaces in the Alhambra and may also date from the time of Muhammad II. What was left of the palace was blown up by Napoleon's troops in 1812. It then became part of an area of abandoned ruins known as the Secano. Its excavated remains are visible today in the southern part of the complex but they have yet to be fully studied.[212][213]
Exterior of the Church of Santa Maria de la Alhambra
Located just east of the Palace of Charles V is the Catholic Church ofSanta María de la Alhambra ('Saint Mary of the Alhambra'), which stands on the site of the former Alhambra Mosque, the congregational mosque of the Alhambra complex. The church was built between 1581 and 1618.[214] It is under the authority of theArchbishop of Granada.[215] The building was designed by architects Juan de Herrera and Juan de Orea and completed by Ambrosio Vico. Inside is a large Baroquealtarpiece with gilded ornate columns completed in 1671, although the most impressive centrepiece of the altar, a sculpture ofOur Lady of Sorrows (depictingMary holding the body ofJesus), was carved between 1750 and 1760 by Torcuato Ruiz del Peral.[214] Every year duringHoly Week, this sculpture is taken out and carried in a procession through the streets of Granada. During processions it is carried on top of a "throne" or platform that is sculpted to resemble the arcades in the Court of the Lions.[214][215]
Little remains of the Alhambra Mosque which stood previously on this site, aside from an ornate bronze lamp now preserved at theNational Archaeological Museum inMadrid. According to an inscription on this lamp and to the writings of Ibn al-Khatib, the mosque was commissioned by Muhammad III and completed in 1305.[216][217] The mosque's main axis was aligned towards theqibla to the southeast, which also matched the alignment of the main street next to it. The structure consisted of a hypostyle hall with three "naves" separated by rows of three arches. The arches were supported by marble columns with capitals similar in style to those of the earlier Cordoban Caliphate period in the 10th century. The roof was made of wood and the central nave, which led to the mihrab, had a higher ceiling than the two side naves. A slenderminaret stood at the western end of the building.[216] After the Christian conquest, the building was converted to a church but by the late 16th century it was in disrepair. It was finally demolished in 1576, prior to the construction of the present church.[216]
Interior of the baths (hammam) that stood near the Alhambra Mosque
One of the Alhambra Mosque's annexes, the baths (hammam), has been preserved on the east side of the church today and is accessible from the main street. Like other Islamic baths, it provided general hygiene to the local residents as well as the means to perform the ritual ablutions (ghusl) for religious purposes.[218] Although sometimes eroticized inRomantic western literature, visitors attended the baths strictly with members of the same sex and wore cloths or towels around their private parts.[218] These baths were constructed under Muhammad III along with the mosque. They may have been partly demolished in 1534 before being incorporated into a residential house during the 17th and 18th centuries. The preserved remains were significant enough to enable their restoration and reconstruction in 1934.[219]
The layout of the baths had a typical sequence of rooms, including achanging room (bayt al-maslak͟h in Arabic), acold room (bayt al-barid), and ahot room (bayt al-sak͟hun).[219] Behind the hot room there would have been a boiler room where water was heated and firewood stored nearby. Original fragments of tile and stucco decoration, as well as part of the marble flooring, have been preserved in some of the rooms. The hot room has one small pool and another may have existed where a modern fountain stands today.[219] However, unlike in Christian and earlierGreco-Roman culture, Muslims generally did not favour swimming or immersion in water for their visits to the baths.[220][221] Private baths, of varying size and importance, were also built as part of the Alhambra's palaces.[13][222]
Remains of theRawda mausoleum today (with the Palace of the Lions standing behind it)
In the space between the former mosque and the Palace of the Lions stood theRawda (spelledRauda in Spanish), the royal mausoleum of the Nasrids. The termrawda (Arabic:الروضة) means 'garden' in Arabic, but a number of historic Islamic necropolises or cemeteries were known by this name, including the necropolis of the former Umayyad rulers in Cordoba.[217][223] The Nasrid mausoleum was first built by Isma'il I in the early 14th century,[39][217] though an earlier cemetery may have already existed there previously.[223] The structure no longer stands today but it has been studied by archaeologists and its foundations are still visible.[224] The necropolis consisted of a rectangular enclosure which was accessed through a small horseshoe-arch gate preserved today on its north side. Inside the enclosure was a square mausoleum chamber covered by a roof with a central square lantern. (The presence of the lantern is indicated by the remains of four pillars in the centre of the structure.) Some rectangular rooms were adjoined to the side of this chamber. The mausoleum was preceded by a rectangular courtyard. This layout was similar to some earlier mausoleums in North Africa and to the laterSaadian Tombs in Marrakesh.[17][223] Like the nearby mosque, the mausoleum was aligned with theqibla. It was decorated with carved stucco and tilework, remains of which have been uncovered in excavations. The windows of the central lantern were closed with wooden latticework, an example of which is preserved in the Alhambra Museum today.[223]
The most important persons, such as the Nasrid rulers, were buried inside this mausoleum, but in the open space between the mausoleum and the outer enclosure wall were other graves belonging to less important figures.[224] The tombs of important figures were covered with marble slabs on top of which were pyramidal orprismatic stones known asmaqabriyyas, while lesser tombs outside where framed by stone curbs that made them look like miniature gardens.[223][224] At the heads of important graves were marble tombstones carved with detailed inscriptions, some examples of which are preserved at the Alhambra Museum today.[223] In 1574, during construction of the nearby Palace of Charles V, the tombstones of Muhammad II, Isma'il I, Yusuf I and Yusuf III were discovered. When Torres Balbás investigated the site in 1925–1926 he found 70 more graves inside the enclosure. Almost all the graves were already empty, as Muhammad XII, the last sultan of Granada, arranged to have the remains of his ancestors moved to an unknown site at Mondújar, in theAlpujarras.[223][224]
To the east of the Alhambra and outside its walls is the Generalife (from Arabic:جَنَّة الْعَرِيف,romanized: Jannat al-'Ārifa[h]), a Nasrid-era country estate which was first built by Muhammad II and Muhammad III in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.[226][227] It underwent multiple modifications under later Nasrid rulers and then by Christian Spanish builders in the 16th century. It features several rectangular garden courtyards with decorated pavilions at either end. A large area of landscaped gardens from the 20th century occupies the approach to the former palace today. The Nasrid palace was originally linked to the Alhambra by a walled corridor that crossed the valley between them.[228]
The main approach to the Alhambra today is through the Alhambra Woods in the valley on its south side. The outer entrance to the woods is through thePuerta de las Granadas ('Gate of the Pomegranates'), a formal Renaissance-style gate built in 1536 over the remains of an earlier Islamic-era gate.[229] Within the woods is thePuerta de Birambla (from ArabicBab al-Ramla), one of the former Islamic-era gates in Granada's city walls which was demolished between 1873 and 1884 and then reconstructed here in 1933.[230] To the south of thePuerta de las Granadas are theTorres Bermejas ('Vermilion Towers'), a group of three adjacent towers on the Mauror Hill. Their origin is not clear, but the oldest remains found here date from the late 8th century or early 9th century.[231] They may have been inhabited by Muhammad I (the founder of the Nasrid dynasty). In the 16th century, during the Christian Spanish era, an artillery bastion was added to them on the northwest side.[232]
During the Nasrid period there were several other country estates and palaces to the east of the Alhambra and the Generalife, located on the mountainside and taking advantage of the water supply system which ran through this area. The two best-known examples are thePalacio de los Alijares and theDar al-'Arusa (Arabic:دار العروس,lit. 'House of the Bride'), both of which were built in the 14th century and then abandoned some time after the 1492 conquest. Only traces of them remain today. They were probably richly decorated like the Alhambra palaces and were accompanied by gardens and amenities like hammams.[233] Also nearby is theSilla del Moro ('Seat of the Moor'), a ruined structure on the hilltop overlooking the Generalife. It was once a fort and monitoring post that protected the water supply infrastructure in this area.[234]
Aqueduct of theAcequia Real, which brings water into the Alhambra's walled enclosure (on the right)
Water was provided to both the Alhambra and the Generalife by theAcequia del Sultan (also known as theAcequia del Rey orAcequia Real),[i] which still exists in large part today. It draws water from the Darro River at an uphill location in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, about 6.1 kilometres east of the Alhambra.[36] A smaller branch known as theAcequia del Tercio also splits off from it several kilometres upstream and proceeded along higher ground before arriving at the top point of the Generalife's palace and gardens. The main branch, proceeding along lower ground, also arrives at the Generalife palace and supplies water to its famousPatio de la Acequia.[235][36] Both canals generally ran along the surface but some parts ran through tunnels cut directly into thebedrock.[235][36]
After arriving at the Generalife, the canals turn towards the southeast and run past the gardens. They then join before turning back towards the Alhambra, where the water enters via an archedaqueduct next to theTorre del Agua ('Water Tower') at the Alhambra's eastern tip.[36] From here it is channelled through the citadel via a complex system of conduits (acequias) and water tanks (albercones) which create the celebrated interplay of light, sound and surface in the palaces.[95]
While the walls and rooms of the Alhambra are devoid of furnishings today, they would have originally been decorated and filled with many objects such as carpets, floor cushions, and tapestries or similar objects to be hung on the walls.[236] The custom of sitting on the ground explains why some of the windows in the miradors (lookout rooms) were situated so low, where the eyeline of seated persons would be.[236]
Among the most famous objects from the Nasrid palaces are the "Alhambra vases", a type of largeHispano-Moresque ware from the Nasrid period that were mostly found in the Alhambra. They stood on display in parts of the palace, probably in the corners of rooms. Their practical function, if any, is unclear but they probably served as accessories to complement the architecture.[237][238] They stood about 125 centimetres tall on average, making them the largest lustreware pieces ever made.[237] They were shaped like amphorae with narrow bases, bulging body, and narrow ribbed necks flanked by flat handles shaped like wings. They were decorated with Arabic inscriptions and other motifs, with the most common colours beingcobalt blue, white, and gold.[237][239] Ten vases of this kind have survived and began to be documented in the 18th century, making their way into museums afterwards. The earliest examples are dated to the late 13th or early 14th century, but the most elegant examples date from the late 14th or early 15th century.[237] It is unclear where exactly they were produced, as there were several centres of ceramic production in the Nasrid kingdom, including Granada andMálaga.[5] One of the best examples is the 14th-century Vase of the Gazelles, now kept at the Alhambra Museum. It stands 135 centimetres tall and is named after the image of confronted gazelles painted on its body.[240][166]
Smaller jars and vases were also kept in niches in the walls and entrances of many rooms of the Alhambra. Ataqa, a niche set into the walls under an archway (in thejambs), was a characteristic element of Nasrid architecture where such jars were kept, possibly filled with water for visitors. Examples of these niches are found in the entrance to the Hall of Ambassadors.[241][238]
Another significant surviving object from the Alhambra is an elaborate bronze lamp that once hung in the main mosque, dated to 1305. The main section of the lamp is conical in shape, tied to a shaft or stem above which is punctuated with small spherical sections. The bronze is pierced to create Arabic inscriptions in aNaskhi script and a background of vegetal Arabesque motifs. After the 1492 conquest it was confiscated and made part of the treasury ofCardinal Cisneros. It is now on display at the National Archaeological Museum in Madrid, although a replica is also kept at the Alhambra Museum.[242]: 276 [243]
The Alhambra was often remembered nostalgically in some Muslim societies after the Christian conquest of 1492 and may have influenced later examples of Islamic architecture. For example, several monuments constructed by theSaadian dynasty, which ruledMorocco in the 16th and 17th centuries, appear to imitate prototypes found in the Alhambra, particularly the Court of the Lions.[245][246]
The Alhambra tiles are remarkable in that they contain nearly all, if not all, of the seventeen mathematically possiblewallpaper groups.[251] This is a unique accomplishment in world architecture.M. C. Escher's visit in 1922 and study of the Moorish use of symmetries in the Alhambra tiles inspired his subsequent work ontessellation, which he called "regular divisions of the plane".[252]
^The gate is known today as thePuente del Cadí ("Bridge of theQadi") or thePuerta de los Tableros ("Gate of the Boards"), and all that remains of it is one of its hexagonal towers with fragments of its largehorseshoe archway.[22][5]
^A 1956 theory by Frederick Bargebuhr[27] that the lion sculptures in the currentCourt of the Lions came from Samuel's palace has since been challenged and refuted by other scholars.[28][29][30]
^Named after the Convent of Saint Francis which was installed here in 1494.[42]
^The Council was known as the "Council of the Alhambra and of the Palace of Charles V" until 1951, when it became known as the "Council of the Alhambra and the Generalife".[91]
^The Arabic wordzellij gave rise to the Spanish wordazulejos, but the latter is now used to designate various ceramic artwork more generally.[112]
^Some scholarly descriptions of the palaces treat the Mexuar as merely one part of the larger Comares Palace.[146][147]
^The namebarca is assumed to derive from the Arabic wordbaraka, meaning "blessing", which is included in the inscriptions around the hall.[159][162][163][164]
^The exact meaning and etymology of the name is not known for certain.[225]
^The canal was known as theSāqiyat al-Sulṭān in Arabic (Arabic:ساقية السلطان,lit. 'canal of the sultan';Spanish:Acequia del Sultan), but after the Nasrid period it became known in Spanish as theAcequia del Rey ('Canal of the King') or theAcequia Real ('Royal Canal').[37]
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