In 334 BC, he invaded theAchaemenid Persian Empire and begana series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years. Following his conquest ofAsia Minor, Alexander broke the power of Achaemenid Persia in a series of decisive battles, including those atIssus andGaugamela; he subsequently overthrewDarius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.[e] After the fall of Persia, theMacedonian Empire held a vast swath of territory between theAdriatic Sea and theIndus River. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" andinvaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory overPorus, an ancient Indian king of present-dayPunjab, at theBattle of the Hydaspes. Due to the mutiny of his homesick troops, he eventually turned back at theBeas River and later died in 323 BC inBabylon, the city ofMesopotamia that he had planned to establish as his empire's capital.Alexander's death left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a Greek invasion ofArabia. In the years following his death,a series of civil wars broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of theDiadochi.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould ofAchilles, featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves,[f] and his tactics remain a significant subject of study inmilitary academies worldwide.[8] Legends of Alexander's exploits coalesced into the third-centuryAlexander Romance which, in the premodern period, went through over one hundred recensions, translations, and derivations and was translated into almost every European vernacular and every language of the Islamic world.[9] After theBible, it was the most popular form of European literature.[10]
Early life
Lineage and childhood
Archaeological site ofPella, Greece, Alexander's birthplace
Alexander III was born inPella, the capital of theKingdom of Macedon,[11] on the sixth day of theancient Greek month ofHekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC (although the exact date is uncertain).[12][13] He was the son of the king of Macedon,Philip II, and his fourth wife,Olympias (daughter ofNeoptolemus I, king ofEpirus).[14][g] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.[15]
Roman medallion depictingOlympias, Alexander's mother
Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood.[16] According to theancient Greek biographerPlutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with aseal engraved with a lion's image.[17] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father wasZeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.[17]
On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing asiege on the city ofPotidea on the peninsula ofChalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his generalParmenion had defeated the combinedIllyrian andPaeonian armies and that his horses had won at theOlympic Games. It was also said that on this day, theTemple of Artemis inEphesus, one of theSeven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This ledHegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down becauseArtemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander.[18] Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.[16]
In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse,Lanike, sister of Alexander's future generalCleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strictLeonidas, a relative of his mother, and byLysimachus of Acarnania.[19] Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play thelyre, ride, fight, and hunt.[20] When Alexander was ten years old, a trader fromThessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteentalents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed.[16] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him.[21] Alexander named itBucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far asIndia. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age 30), Alexander named a city after him,Bucephala.[22]
Education
When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for atutor, and considered such academics asIsocrates andSpeusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of theAcademy to take up the post. In the end, Philip choseAristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs atMieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown ofStageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.[23]
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such asPtolemy,Hephaestion, andCassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works ofHomer, and in particular theIliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.[24] Alexander was able to quoteEuripides from memory.[25]
In his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposedArtaxerxes III.[26][27][28] Among them wereArtabazos II and his daughterBarsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well asAmminapes, futuresatrap of Alexander, and a Persian nobleman namedSisines.[26][29][30][31] This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.[29]
Suda writes thatAnaximenes of Lampsacus was one of Alexander's teachers, and that Anaximenes also accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.[32]
At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip II had waged war against theThracians to the north, which left Alexander in charge asregent andheir apparent.[16] During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe ofMaedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. The territory was colonized, and a city, namedAlexandropolis, was founded.[33]
Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southernThrace. Campaigning against the Greek city ofPerinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city ofAmphissa began to work lands that were sacred toApollo nearDelphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. While Philip was occupied in Thrace, Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, theIllyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.[34]
Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south throughThermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city ofElatea, only a few days' march from bothAthens andThebes. The Athenians, led byDemosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes's favour, but Athens won the contest.[35] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of theAmphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.[36]
As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him nearChaeronea,Boeotia. During the ensuingBattle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenianhoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.[37]
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into thePeloponnese, devastating much of Laconia and ejecting the Spartans from various parts of it.[38] AtCorinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the oldanti-Persian alliance of theGreco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then namedHegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as theLeague of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack thePersian Empire.[39][40]
Exile and return
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and marriedCleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC,[41] the niece of his generalAttalus.[42] The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.[43] During thewedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.[42]
At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor, at which Alexander reproachfully insulted him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."
— Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[44]
In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, KingAlexander I of Epirus inDodona, capital of theMolossians.[45] He continued to Illyria[45] where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps withGlaucias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before.[46] However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son.[45] Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend,Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.[47]
In the following year, the Persiansatrap (governor) ofCaria,Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother,Philip Arrhidaeus.[45] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir.[45] Alexander reacted by sending an actor,Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him.[45] Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends,Harpalus,Nearchus,Ptolemy andErigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.[48]
Pausanias assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre
In the 24th day of theMacedonian month Dios, which probably corresponds to 25 October 336 BC,[49][50] while atAegae attending the wedding of his daughterCleopatra to Olympias's brother,Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of hisbodyguards,Pausanias,[h] who, according toDiodorus, was also his lover.[51] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions,Perdiccas andLeonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles andarmy at the age of 20.[52][53][54]
Consolidation of power
Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the formerAmyntas IV, executed.[55] He also had two Macedonian princes from the region ofLyncestis killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third,Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice, and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,[55] who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.[56]
Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to be left alive.[56] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.[52][54][57]
News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass betweenMount Olympus andMount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards thePeloponnese.[58]
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south toCorinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famousencounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight.[59] This reply apparently delighted Alexander who is reported to have said, "But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."[60] At Corinth, Alexander took the title ofHegemon ("leader") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.[61]
The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting fromAmphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians", and atMount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.[62] The Macedonians marched into the country of theTriballi and defeated their army near theLyginus river[63] (atributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to theDanube, encountering theGetae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalryskirmish.[64]
News then reached Alexander that the Illyrian chieftainCleitus andKing Glaukias of theTaulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.[65]
Destruction of Thebes
While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south.[66] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective and Alexanderrazed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.[66] Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leavingAntipater as regent.[67]
Alexander's invasion of Persia as a whole has been denoted as a supreme example of a "strategic line" of conducting war, a line formed by "the chain of logic that connects operations into a single whole." In his bookStrategy, Soviet military officer and theoristAlexander Svechin delineates Alexander's strategic steps. After securing his Greek base and the Balkans by subjugating his political opponents, and securing his army's rear through the conquest of all the Afro-Asian coastline, where the Persian fleet was based and from which it was supplied, Alexander moved to confront directly the Persians. He thus resolved the eternal problem of an army conducting operations deep into enemy territory, Svechin states, in an "exemplary manner."[68]
After his victory at theBattle of Chaeronea (338 BC),Philip II began the work of establishing himself ashēgemṓn (Greek:ἡγεμών) of a league which according toDiodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sentParmenion,Amyntas, Andromenes, Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men intoAnatolia to make preparations for an invasion.[69][70] The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated nearMagnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenaryMemnon of Rhodes.[69][70]
Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed theHellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry, and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000[66] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers fromThrace,Paionia, andIllyria.[71][i] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.[66]
After an initial victory against Persian forces at theBattle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury ofSardis; he then proceeded along theIonian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities.Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, atHalicarnassus, inCaria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scalesiege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captainMemnon of Rhodes and the Persiansatrap of Caria,Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.[72] Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty,Ada, who adopted Alexander.[73]
From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainousLycia and thePamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards, the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. AtTermessos, Alexander humbled and did not storm thePisidian city.[74] At the ancient Phrygian capital ofGordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvableGordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king ofAsia".[75] According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and hacked it apart with his sword.[76]
In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed theTaurus intoCilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius atIssus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his motherSisygambis, and a fabulous treasure.[77] He offered apeace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.[78] Alexander proceeded to take possession ofSyria, and most of the coast of theLevant.[73] In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attackTyre, which he captured after a long and difficultsiege.[79][80] The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold intoslavery.[81]
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route toEgypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance atGaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".[82] After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword, and the women and children were sold into slavery.[83]
Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner – nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.[84] Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but in early 331 BC he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.[84]
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC where he was regarded as a liberator.[85] To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at theSiwa Oasis in theLibyan desert,[84] at which he was pronounced the son of the deityAmun.[86] Henceforth, Alexander often referred toZeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death,currency depicted him adorned with horns, using theHorns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity.[87] The Greeks interpreted this message – one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs – as a prophecy.[84]
During his stay in Egypt, he foundedAlexandria, which would become the prosperous capital of thePtolemaic Kingdom after his death.[88] Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305–30 BC) after the death of Alexander.[89]
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward intoAchaemenid Assyria inUpper Mesopotamia (now northernIraq) and defeated Darius again at theBattle of Gaugamela.[90] Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far asArbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.[91] Darius fled over the mountains toEcbatana (modernHamadan) while Alexander capturedBabylon.[92]
Babylonian astronomical diaries say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".[93]
Site of thePersian Gate in modern-dayIran; the road was built in the 1990s.
From Babylon, Alexander went toSusa, one of theAchaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury.[92] He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital ofPersepolis via the PersianRoyal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of thePersian Gates (in the modernZagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army underAriobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[94]
On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.[95] Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.[96] During his stay, a fire broke out in the eastern palace ofXerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of theAcropolis of Athens during theSecond Persian War by Xerxes;[97] Plutarch andDiodorus allege that Alexander's companion, thehetaeraThaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.[98][99][100]Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires[98] but the flames had already spread to most of the city.[98]Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.[98] Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:
Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?[101]
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.[103] The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner byBessus, hisBactrian satrap and kinsman.[104] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch aguerrilla campaign against Alexander.[105] Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.[106] He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.[107] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.[108] However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of theIranologistPierre Briant "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as thelast of the Achaemenids."[109]
Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modernKandahar in Afghanistan, andAlexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modernTajikistan. The campaign took Alexander throughMedia,Parthia,Aria (West Afghanistan),Drangiana,Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan),Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), andScythia.[110]
In 329 BC,Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus toPtolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.[111] However, at some point later when Alexander was on theJaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at theBattle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.[112]
During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom ofproskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.[113] This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.[109] The Greeks however regarded the gesture ofproskynesis as the province ofdeities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.[114]
During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved forIranians and to a major degree,Persian noblemen.[109] The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.[109] This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.[109]Pierre Briant explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.[109] As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".[109] Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".[109] However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace atPersepolis in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.[109] Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III".[109]
A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers,Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thusParmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury atEcbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus,Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation atMaracanda (modern daySamarkand inUzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and especially of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.[115]
Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed. This one was instigated by his own royalpages. His official historian,Callisthenes ofOlynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in theAnabasis of Alexander,Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on therack as punishment, and likely died soon after.[116] It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.[117]
Macedon in Alexander's absence
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his generalAntipater, an experienced military and political leader, and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.[67] Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.[67] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan kingAgis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in thebattle of Megalopolis.[67] Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.[118] There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.[119]
In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.[120] Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.[121] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after theThird Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[20]
The conquest byPhilip II ofPangaeum, and then of the island ofThasos between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.[123]
Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage inCilicia inTarsus, after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.[124] Alexander minted goldstaters, silvertetradrachms anddrachims, and various fractionalbronze coins. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head ofAthena on the obverse and a wingedNike (Victory) on the reverse.[125] The silver coinage had a beardless head ofHeracles wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.[126] There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles andZeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary,Dium.[124] The lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian godSandas, worshipped atTarsus.[124] The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the godBaaltars (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrapMazaeus before Alexander's conquest.[124]
Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all thesatrapies of the empire.[127]
After the death ofSpitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna inOld Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to theIndian subcontinent. He invited thechieftains of the former satrapy ofGandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northernPakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority.Omphis (Indian nameAmbhi), the ruler ofTaxila, whose kingdom extended from theIndus to theHydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including theAspasioi andAssakenoi sections of theKambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.[128]Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends atHund,[129] supplied their troops with provisions, and he received Alexander and his whole army in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.
On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in theBattle of the Hydaspes. After that victory, he was sent by Alexander in pursuit ofPorus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; Taxiles contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes and was entrusted by Alexander with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death ofPhilip, son of Machatas, and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces atTriparadisus, 321 BC.
In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of theKunar Valley, the Guraeans of theGuraeus Valley, and the Assakenoi of theSwat andBuner Valleys.[130] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora, andAornos.[128]
The fort of Massaga was reduced after days of bloody fighting in which Alexander was seriously wounded in the ankle. According toCurtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble."[131] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress ofAornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.[128]
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and won an epic battle against KingPorus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and theAcesines (Chenab), in what is now thePunjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.[132] Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas).[133][134] Choosing a local helped him control these lands that were distant from Greece.[135] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of theHydaspes river, naming oneBucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time.[136] The other wasNicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-dayMong, Punjab.[137]Philostratus the Elder in theLife of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus, there was an elephant who fought bravely against Alexander's army, and Alexander dedicated it to theHelios (Sun) and named it Ajax because he thought that such a great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).[138]
East of Porus's kingdom, near theGanges River, was theNanda Empire ofMagadha, and further east, theGangaridai Empire ofBengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at theHyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.[139] This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.[140]
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4 km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180 m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes ofmen-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousandwar elephants.[141]
Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his generalCoenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along theIndus. Along the way his army conquered theMalhi (in modern-dayMultan) and other Indian tribes; while besieging the Mallian citadel, Alexander suffered a near-fatal injury when an arrow penetrated his armor and entered his lung.[142][143]
Alexander sent much of his army toCarmania (modern southernIran) with generalCraterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore thePersian Gulf shore under his admiralNearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along theGedrosian Desert andMakran.[144] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.[145]
Last years in Persia
Discovering that many of hissatraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way toSusa.[146][147] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town ofOpis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.[148]
After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.[149] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexanderheld a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.[147]
Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of thetomb of Cyrus the Great inPasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.[150] Alexander admiredCyrus the Great, from an early age readingXenophon'sCyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.[151] During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architectAristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.[151]
Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.[152] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensivefuneral pyre in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.[152] Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia.[153]
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace ofNebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32.[154][155] There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiralNearchus and spent the night and next day drinking withMedius of Larissa.[156] Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.[157] In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.[158] Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.[156]
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination and Alexander's relatively young age,[159] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian andJustin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[160] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.[158][161] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designatingAntipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, replaced by Craterus, as the head of the alleged plot.[162] Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence[163] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[164] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[161][164] There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.[161] The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.[165] However, in a 2003BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.[166][167][168] In a 2014 manuscript in the journalClinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked withVeratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in theAlexander Romance.[169]Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned,Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.[169][170] Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-dayMavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that containedcalicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.[171]
Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoidsarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.[177][178] According toAelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".[179] Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was aroyal prerogative.[180]
19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description byDiodorus Siculus
While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.[177][179] His successor,Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at leastlate antiquity.Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.[181] The 2014 discovery of anenormous tomb in northern Greece, atAmphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great[182] has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.[183][184]
Pompey,Julius Caesar andAugustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose of Alexander's mummified body off.Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, EmperorSeptimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor,Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.[181]
The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered nearSidon and now in theIstanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because itsbas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus ofAbdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following theBattle of Issus in 332.[185][186] However, in 1969, it was suggested byKarl Schefold that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death.[187]
Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blindedCyclops due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.[188][189][190] In addition, Leosthenes also likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".[191]
Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.[67] Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.[192] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".[158] Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.[193] Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this time, implying that this was an apocryphal story.[194] Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed hissignet ring toPerdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.[158][192]
Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male, with himself,Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command ofMeleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.[195] Dissension and rivalry soon affected the Macedonians. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at thePartition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into three stable power blocs:Ptolemaic Egypt,Seleucid Syria and East, andAntigonid Macedonia. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.[196]
Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions toCraterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans".[198] Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.[198] Furthermore,Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.[67]
According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:
Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to thePillars of Hercules, to be used for an invasion ofCarthage and the western Mediterranean;[199]
Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("synoecisms") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"[200][199]
Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of thepyramids of Egypt"[67][199]
The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity.Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out.[199] Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of theAlexander Romance.[201]
Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.[202] This was due to use of terrain,phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.[203] TheMacedonian phalanx, armed with thesarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.[204] Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,[96] in the manner of a Macedonian king.[203]
In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.[205] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians'scimitars andjavelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.[206]
At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.[206] Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.[207] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again.[206]
When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, inBactria andSogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.[207] In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.[149]
Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail;[208] for example, Arrian describes him simply as "very handsome".[209] During his lifetime, Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time. This included commissioning sculptures byLysippos, paintings byApelles and gem engravings byPyrgoteles.[210] Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious.[211][210] Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are.[212] Nevertheless, though idealised, Lysippos's sculpture was thought to be the most faithfulplastic representation.[213]
Then Alexander seating himself on the royal throne, which was far too high for his bodily stature. Therefore, since his feet did not reach its lowest step, one of the royal pages placed a table under his feet.[215]
Both Curtius andDiodorus report a story that whenDarius III's mother,Sisygambis, first met Alexander andHephaestion, she assumed that the latter was Alexander because he was the taller and more physically impressive of the two.[216][217]
The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in theMemoirs of Aristoxenus.[218]
Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant fragrance attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes.[210]
TheAlexander Mosaic and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead".[210] He is also described as having a slight upward tilt of his head to the left.[219]
A fresco depicting a hunt scene at the tomb ofPhilip II atAigai, the only known artistic depiction of Alexander that was securely made during his lifetime, 330s BC
Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. His father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.[55] Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle.[230] While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",[231] he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.[230] Alexander's mother Olympias similarly had huge ambitions, and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.[230] She instilled a sense of destiny in him,[232] and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".[233]
According to Plutarch, Alexander also had a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,[234] which could influence his decision making.[230] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.[235] He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.[236] This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.[230] His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.[234] He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack ofself-control with alcohol.[237]
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.[233][236] However, he had little interest in sports or theOlympic Games (unlike his father), seeking only theHomeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos).[238] He had greatcharisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.[192][234] His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.[192]
Stag Hunt Mosaic, the figure on the right possibly being Alexander, and the figure to the left wields a double-headed axe, likely alluding toHephaistos; possibly meaning hisgeneralHephaestion
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs ofmegalomania andparanoia.[163] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.[239] Hisdelusions of grandeur are readily visible in hiswill and in his desire to conquer the world,[163] in as much as he is by various sources described as havingboundless ambition,[240][241] an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into a historical cliché.[242][243]
He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.[163] Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,[244] an idea apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun atSiwa.[245] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.[245] Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notablyproskynesis, which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes;[109] however the practise ofproskynesis was disapproved by the Macedonians, and they were unwilling to perform it.[113] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.[246] Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in societies where the king was treated as divine.[247] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.[248]
Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguardHephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble.[152][230][256] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.[152][257] This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detachedmental state during his final months.[163][172]
Sexuality
Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.[258] The Roman era writerAthenaeus says, based on the scholarDicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed theeunuchBagoas in public.[259] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. HistorianWilliam Woodthorpe Tarn rejected the stories of Bagoas as fabricated in ancient times to defame Alexander, mainly referring to theRufus's fairly fictionalized biography of Alexander that criticized the Macedonian's "degeneration" in embracing foreign Persian customs.[260] However, in 1958 Badian countered Tarn's arguments, though his concern was the issue of the reliability of sources for Alexander rather than the figure of the eunuch himself.[261] None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared toAchilles and Patroclus, who are often interpreted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit toTroy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that ofPatroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."[262] At the same time, ancient writers did not conclusively identify them as lovers.[263] Some modern historians (e.g.,Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but also that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,[264][265] though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.[266]
Peter Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much sexual interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.[230] However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners three times in eight years, had fathered more children than his father at the same age.[267] Two of these pregnancies—Stateira's and Barsine's—are of dubious legitimacy.[268]
According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",[269] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".[237] Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.[270] Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, includingAda of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's motherSisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.[230]
Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history.[271] His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade betweenEast andWest, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed toGreek civilization and influence.[20] Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.[20]
Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[273] and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. Thesuccessor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as theHellenistic period.[274]
The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.[192] However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, theMaurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum,Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of thePunjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer theNanda Empire.[275]
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander foundedmany cities that bore his name, most of them east of theTigris.[114][276] The first, and greatest, wasAlexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.[114] The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.[114] Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.[114][276] However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.[114]
In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple ofAthena Polias inPriene, in modern-day western Turkey.[278] Aninscription from the temple, now housed in theBritish Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."[277] This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.[277] The temple was designed byPytheos, one of the architects of theMausoleum at Halicarnassus.[277][278][279]
Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (Ancient Greek:Βοττιαίου Δῖός), in the place where later the city ofAntioch was built.[280][281]
In 2023,British Museum experts have suggested the possibility that a Greek temple atGirsu inIraq, was founded by Alexander. According to the researchers, recent discoveries suggest that "this site honours Zeus and two divine sons. The sons are Heracles and Alexander."[283]
Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km.
Hellenization was coined by the German historianJohann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.[274] This process can be seen in such great Hellenistic cities asAlexandria,Antioch[284] andSeleucia (south of modernBaghdad).[285] Alexander sought to insert Greek elements intoPersian culture and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, homogenizing the populations of Asia and Europe. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.[286]
The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentiallyAthenian.[287] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largelyAttic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect.[288] Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming thelingua franca of Hellenistic lands, and eventually the ancestor ofmodern Greek.[288] Furthermore,town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, theNew Testament was written in theKoine Greek language.[284] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[289]
Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-risingGreco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modernAfghanistan,Pakistan, andTajikistan) and theIndo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.[290] On theSilk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian andBuddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology ofGandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are theEdicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.[291] The resultingsyncretism known asGreco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[292] and created a culture ofGreco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries toChina,Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism).
Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals ofThe Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues ofApollo in the Greco-Buddhist style.[293] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by theancient Greek religion: the concept ofBoddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[294] and someMahayanaceremonial practices (burningincense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king,Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized inBuddhist literature as 'Milinda'.[293] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.[295] For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in theGreco-Bactrian city ofAi Khanoum in modern-dayAfghanistan,[296] while the Greek concept of aspherical Earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.[295][297][298] TheYavanajataka (lit.'Greek astronomical treatise') andPaulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.[300]Polybius began hisHistories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model.Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.[300]Julius Caesar dedicated aLysippeanequestrianbronze statue, but replaced Alexander's head with his own, whileOctavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from asphinx to Alexander's profile.[300] The emperorTrajan also admired Alexander, as didNero andCaracalla.[300] The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person ofMacrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery or embroidered into their clothes.[301]
On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of howautocratic tendencies can be kept in check by the values of theRoman Republic.[302] Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such asamicitia (friendship) andclementia (clemency), but alsoiracundia (anger) andcupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).[302]
Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.[303]
TheItinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin description of Alexander the Great's campaigns.
Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.[304][305]
Pompey posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero.[306]
After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great.[307][308] He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-stylephalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.[307][308][309] The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the termPhalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed withpikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the lateRoman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.[309] As a consequence, thePhalangarii ofLegio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possiblyTriarii.[309]
Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of theAristotelian school based on a legend thatAristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.[308]
In AD 39,Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporaryfloating bridge to be built using ships aspontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort ofBaiae to the neighbouring port ofPuteoli.[310][311] It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian kingXerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont.[311] Caligula, who could not swim,[312] then proceeded to ride his favourite horseIncitatus across, wearing the breastplate ofAlexander the Great.[311] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayerThrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".[311]
The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for thelater Roman expansion into these territories andentire basis for theByzantine Empire, according toErrington.[313]
Alexander wrote and received numerous letters, but nooriginals survive. A few official letters addressed to the Greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. Several fictitious letters, some perhaps based on actual letters, made their way into theRomance tradition.[314]
Many of the legends about Alexander derive from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.[315] His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea inCilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death,Onesicritus invented a tryst between Alexander andThalestris, queen of the mythicalAmazons. He reportedly read this passage to his patron KingLysimachus, who had been one of Alexander's generals and who quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."[316]
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as theAlexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known asPseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent over one hundred recensions, translations, and derivations throughout the Islamic and European worlds in premodern times,[317] containing many dubious stories,[315] and was translated into twenty-five languages,[318] for exampleMiddle Persian,Syriac andArabic.[319][9]
Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has featured in both high and popular culture, beginning from his own era to the present day. TheAlexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European, to modern Greek.[318]
Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more than any other ancient figure.[320] The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in theKaragiozis shadow play.[320] One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitarymermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain, "Is King Alexander alive?" The answer should be "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a ragingGorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.[320]
Folio from theShahnameh showing Alexander praying at theKaaba, mid-16th century
In pre-IslamicMiddle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithetgujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.[321] InIslamic Persia, under the influence of theAlexander Romance (inPersian:اسکندرنامهIskandarnameh), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.[322]Firdausi'sShahnameh ("The Book of Kings")includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persianshahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of theFountain of Youth.[323] In theShahnameh, Alexander's first journey is toMecca to pray at theKaaba.[324] Alexander was depicted as performing aHajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.[325] Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such asSocrates,Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.[322]
TheSyriac version of theAlexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".[322] In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son ofNectanebo II, the lastpharaoh before the Persian conquest.[327] His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.[322]
According toJosephus, Alexander was shown theBook of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.[328]
Alexander conquering the air.Jean Wauquelin,Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, 1448–1449
InHindi andUrdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and theDelhi Sultanate rulerAlauddin Khalji stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).[329] Inmedieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence ofSikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such asAmir Khusrau and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.[330] Inmedieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of theNine Worthies; a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities ofchivalry.[331] During the firstItalian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question fromBourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar,Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia.[332]
Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.[20] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes, Alexander's generals; Ptolemy andNearchus,Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns, and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on theseoriginal sources have survived. The earliest of these isDiodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD),Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finallyJustin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.[20] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.[20]
The nameἈλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verbἀλέξω (aléxō,lit.'ward off, avert, defend')[333][334] andἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem ofἀνήρ (anḗr,lit.'man'),[335][334] and means "protector of men".[336]
By the time of his death, he had conquered the entireAchaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[339][340] An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen inHecataeus of Miletus's map; seeHecataeus world map.
For instance,Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;[341]Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;[342]Pompey andAlauddin Khalji consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[343] the youngNapoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank.[344]Caracalla believed himself to be the actual reincarnation of Alexander.[345][346][347]Caligula wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power.[348][349]Fidel Castro's hero was Alexander the Great, whose Spanish equivalentAlejandro he adopted as hisnom de guerre.[350] AmongOttoman sultans,Mehmed II's heroes were Alexander andAchilles.[351] In a letter to his rival,Selim I, while equating himself with Alexander, comparesIsmail I as "Darius of our days".[352]Paolo Giovio, in a work written forCharles V, says that Selim holds Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in the highest esteem above all the generals of old.[353]
In ancient historiography, theArgead dynasty was traditionally regarded as having originated fromArgos. The Argeads themselves claimed Argive Greek descent from the heroTemenus. Through his parents' genealogy, ancient authors traced Alexander's descent back to heroes and other legendary figures fromGreek mythology, such asHeracles andAchilles.[354][355]
There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.[356]
However,Arrian, who usedPtolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot;Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, whichPolyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men.
^Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009),The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE."Golden, Peter B.Central Asia in World History (Oxford University Press, 2011), 25;"[...] his campaigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia, and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. As elsewhere, Alexander founded or renamed a number of cities, such as Alexandria Eschate ("Outernmost Alexandria," near modern Khojent in Tajikistan)."
^Burger, Michael (2008).The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. University of Toronto Press. p. 76.ISBN978-1-55111-432-3.
^Mínguez Cornelles, Víctor; Rodríguez Moya, Inmaculada (2024).The visual legacy of Alexander the Great from the Renaissance to the age of revolution. Routledge research in art history. New York London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 22.ISBN978-1-032-54990-3.
^Green, Peter (1970).Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: a historical biography. Hellenistic culture and society (illustrated, revised reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. xxxiii.ISBN978-0-520-07165-0. Retrieved20 June 2015.356 – Alexander born in Pella. The exact date is not known, but probably either 20 or 26 July.
^Cartledge, Paul (2002).Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History, 1300-362 B.C. (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 273.ISBN0-415-26276-3.Philip laid Lakonia waste as far south as Gytheion and formally deprived Sparta of Dentheliatis (and apparently the territory on the Messenian Gulf as far as the Little Pamisos river), Belminatis, the territory of Karyai and the east Parnon foreland.
^Green, Peter (1991). "Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (Hellenistic Culture and Society)".The American Historical Review.1. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press.doi:10.1086/ahr/96.5.1515.ISSN0002-8762.
^Svechin, Alexander (1991) [1927]. "Combining Operations for Achieving the ultimate Goal of the War". In Lee, Kent D. (ed.).Strategy. East View Information Services. p. 263.ISBN1-879944-33-2.
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^Olga Palagia (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander", in A.B. Bosworth and E.J. Baynham (eds),Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-815287-3, p. 185.
^Stewart, Andrew (1993).Faces of Power : Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics Hellenistic Culture and Society. University of California Press. p. 72.ISBN978-0-520-06851-3.
^Stewart, Andrew (1993).Faces of Power : Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics Hellenistic Culture and Society. University of California Press. p. 69.ISBN978-0-520-06851-3.
^Woodhouse, Sidney Chawner (1910).English–Greek Dictionary: A Vocabulary of the Attic Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited. pp. 52, 84, 101.
^Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul; Beek, Lucien van (2010).Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p. 1033.
^Loube, Heather (1995).The Metz Epitome: Alexander (July, 330 B.C. - July, 325 В.С.) A Commentary. Department of Classical Studies University of Ottawa. pp. 10-11 of Introduction.
^Thomas Hubbard (2014). "Chapter 8: Peer Homosexuality". In Hubbard, Thomas (ed.).A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 143.ISBN978-1-4051-9572-0.
^Ogden 2009, p. 208... three attested pregnancies in eight years produces an attested impregnation rate of one every 2.7 years, which is actually superior to that of his father.
^Mary Renault (1979).The Nature of Alexander. Pantheon. p. 110.ISBN978-0-394-73825-3.No record at all exists of such a woman [ie, Barsine] accompanying his march; nor of any claim by her, or her powerful kin, that she had borne him offspring. Yet twelve years after his death a boy was produced, seventeen years old, born therefore five years after Damascus, her alleged son "brought up in Pergamon"; a claimant and shortlived pawn in the succession wars, chosen probably for a physical resemblance to Alexander. That he actually did marry another Barsine must have helped both to launch and preserve the story; but no source reports any notice whatever taken by him of a child who, Roxane's being posthumous, would have been during his lifetime his only son, by a near-royal mother. In a man who named cities after his horse and dog, this strains credulity.
^ab"Collection online".British Museum.Archived from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved15 December 2017. "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed on two sides. The inscription on the front records the gift of funds from Alexander the Great to complete the temple."
^"Priene Inscription".British Museum.Archived from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved15 December 2017. "Marble wall block from the temple of Athena at Priene, inscribed. Part of the marble wall of the temple of Athena at Priene. Above: "King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias."
^"Capitains Nemo".cts.perseids.org.Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved23 May 2020.
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^Kennedy, Hugh (2012). "Journey to Mecca: A History". In Porter, Venetia (ed.).Hajj : journey to the heart of Islam. Cambridge, Mass.: The British Museum. p. 131.ISBN978-0-674-06218-4.OCLC709670348.
^Webb, Peter (2013). "The Hajj before Muhammad: Journeys to Mecca in Muslim Narratives of Pre-Islamic History". In Porter, Venetia; Saif, Liana (eds.).The Hajj : collected essays. London: The British Museum. pp. 14 footnote 72.ISBN978-0-86159-193-0.OCLC857109543.
^Griffith, Sidney (15 March 2022). "Narratives of 'the Companions of the Cave,' Moses and His Servant, and Dhū 'l-Qarnayn in Sūrat al-Kahf: Late Antique Lore within the Purview of the Qurʾān".Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association.6 (1).doi:10.5913/jiqsa.6.2021.a005.S2CID251486595.
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In Our Time: "Alexander the Great" – BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.
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