Pope Alexander VIII (Italian:Alessandro VIII; 22 April 1610 – 1 February 1691), bornPietro Vito Ottoboni, was head of theCatholic Church and ruler of thePapal States from 6 October 1689 to his death in February 1691.
Alexander VIII is known for having overturned many of the policies of his predecessor,Innocent XI, deciding to indulge innepotism in order to further enrich his family. Such nepotism exhausted thepapal treasury, later forcing his successor,Innocent XII, to implement austere measures to restore the papal coffers. Despite his brief papacy, during which little of importance was undertaken, Alexander VIII is known for having condemned the doctrines of the so-calledphilosophical sin which was being taught in schools run by theSociety of Jesus.[1] Also during his papacy, KingLouis XIV of France restoredAvignon to theHoly See as a territory of the Papal States.[2]
Pietro VitoOttoboni was born in 1610 of anoble Venetian family,[1] and was the youngest of nine children of Marco Ottoboni (1554–1646),grand chancellor of theRepublic of Venice, and wife (1594) Vittoria Tornielli (d. 6 November 1635), and paternal grandson of Marcantonio Ottoboni (d. 30 July 1576) and wife Dianora Besalù, Basalu or Bassalù (d. 1 December 1603).[2] His brothers included Agostino Ottoboni (31 July 1608 - d. 2 August 1673), married firstly to Candida Benci (d. c. 31 December 1647) (parents of Vittoria Ottoboni (b. 1637), married to Luigi Priuli, with issue, andAntonio Ottoboni, married to Maria Moretti, parents of CardinalPietro Ottoboni) and married secondly in Venice on 22 April 1649 to Paolina Bernardo (parents of Chiara Ottoboni (b. 27 July 1651), married in 1670 to Francesco Zeno, with issue, andMarco Ottoboni [it], 1st Duke of Fiano). His sisters included Cristina Ottoboni, married to Giambattista Rubini, with issue, and Andriana Ottoboni, married as his first wife to her second cousin Marcantonio Padavino. The family was invited into the nobility of Venice as a result of thebattle of Zonchio (1499) and later met the financial qualifications for nobility in the 17th century after amassing a fortune in the diplomatic service.
Pope Alexander VIII depicted on a gold quadrupleItalian scudo from 1689. SaintsPeter andPaul on the reverse. Engraved by Antonio Travani, a goldsmith and medalist in Rome.[4]
The ambassador of KingLouis XIV of France (1643–1715) succeeded in procuring his election on 6 October 1689, as the successor toPope Innocent XI (1676–89); nevertheless, after months of negotiation Alexander VIII finally condemned thedeclaration made in 1682 by the French clergy concerning the liberties of theGallican church.[1]
Originally, the allies of Cardinal Flavio Chigi proposed a Venetian in the form ofGregorio Barbarigo rather than their true choice of Ottoboni, hence, a case of misdirection to test whether or not the electors would consider the appointment of a Venetian to the papal throne. Though Barbarigo seemed to garner an exceptional number of votes which highlighted that a Venetian pontiff was indeed a tantalizing opportunity, Barbarigo could not garner any additional votes beyond what he already had accrued. However, many in the camp that wanted continuity with the policies of Innocent XI had caught on to the deception, which only served to create indignation within the conclave. However, since Chigi and his faction had not directly voted for Barbarigo in order to maintain the deception, the Ottoboni candidacy could go ahead and could remain unmarred since Chigi and his faction lied that they were waiting for the arrival of the French cardinals and did not wish to commit to any particular candidate. Though the Venetians indicated their support for Ottoboni, the republic had also managed to secure the support ofMadrid andVienna through their ambassadors, whileCardinal Medici made certain that the Imperial and Spanish factions would also support Ottoboni's candidacy. The determination to elect Ottoboni came conclusively when Ottoboni himself indicated that he was strongly in favor of reconciliation with the French, something that greatly appeased Louis XIV who had been in a more conciliatory mood of late.[6]
Old but of a strong constitution, Alexander VIII was said to be an able diplomat. During his brief pontificate he managed to destroy most of his predecessor's good work. All the money saved by Innocent XI was spent on enriching the Ottoboni family and to a cardinal he said: "I have no time to lose; for me the day is almost done!"[7] Known to be an upright man who was generous and possessed a peaceful disposition, he held a profound compassion and attentiveness for the poor which was often squandered and abused by his nepotistic relatives upon whom he generously heaped riches that they, on their own behalf and to the discredit of his papacy, squandered for their own personal ends.[2]
Alexander VIII was almost an octogenarian when elected to the papacy, which lasted only sixteen months, during which time little of importance was done. Louis XIV, whose political situation was now critical, profited by the peaceful dispositions of the new pope, restoredAvignon to him, and renounced the long-abusedright of asylum for the French Embassy.[2]
On 29 November 1690, the pontiff established that no more than ten thousand ducats could be spent on the funeral of a pope. That same year, he also forbade that any furnishings of the conclave could not be stripped to be sold for profit.
On 30 March 1690, the pope established and confirmed the rights of the neophytes inSoutheast Asia in the papal briefAnimarum salutes.
Reversing the economic policies of his immediate predecessor, Alexander VIII attempted to reduce the tax burden on the populace as a means of providing financial assistance to the more disadvantaged peoples. However, this backfired due to the pope's focus on large-scale charity initiatives and his focus on theGreat Turkish War against theOttoman Empire, which quickly depleted papal funds which Innocent XI had been very careful to grow and safeguard.
Charities on a large scale and unbounded nepotism exhausted the papal treasury,[1] reversing the policies of his predecessor. Among the various nominations, his 22-year-old grandnephewPietro was made cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Church,[8][1] nephew Marco, son of his brother Agostino, was made inspector of naval fortifications and Duke of Fiano, and nephew Antonio, another of Agostino's children, was made general of the church. His nephewGiambattista Rubini was madeCardinal Secretary of State andbishop of Vicenza. Out of compassion for the poor of the impoverishedPapal States, he sought to help them by reducing taxes. But this same generous nature led him to bestow on his relations the riches they were eager to accumulate; on their behalf, and to the discredit of his pontificate, he revivedsinecure offices which had been suppressed by Innocent XI.[2] He bought the books and manuscripts of QueenChristina of Sweden for theVatican Library.[3] Alexander VIII assisted his native Venice by generous subsidies in the war against the Turks,[2] as well as sending sevengalleys and 2,000 infantry for the campaign inAlbania.
The tomb of Alexander VIII in Saint Peter's Basilica.
In 1690 he condemned the doctrines of the so-calledphilosophical sin, taught in theJesuit schools.[1] He also held three consistories that saw 14 new cardinals elevated.
A Venetian himself, Alexander VIII largely supported theRepublic of Venice in itsmilitary campaign against the Ottoman Empire for control ofPeloponnese in Greece and theAegean Sea, donating enough food to fill sevengalleys while also sending infantry for their campaign in Albania.
Condemning the precepts of the Gallican proposals which had been ratified in 1682, the pope attempted to try and mend the despairing relationship between the Holy See and the French which had been largely strained by his predecessor. Despite this, the proposals were revoked in 1693 only after Alexander VIII had died, in exchange for papal recognition of the right of the crown to administer to vacant dioceses.[9] At the time as Louis XIV found his own political situation to be precarious, the monarch profited from the pope's peaceful dispositions while Louis XIV decided to renounce the long-abused right of asylum for the French embassy.[2]
The pope created 14 cardinals in three consistories and elevated individuals such as his grandnephewPietro Ottoboni in a restoration of nepotism that had not been seen in his predecessor's reign. Among those whom he named was Gianfrancesco Albani, the futurePope Clement XI.
The pontiff also namedToussaint de Forbin-Janson to the cardinalate in 1690 despite his immediate predecessor having firmly refused to do so. While Innocent XI had refused to name him as a cardinal due to Forbin-Janson's support for theGallican proposals in 1682, Alexander VIII opted to name him a cardinal in an attempt to smooth over tense relations with King Louis XIV who had been on relatively poor terms with Innocent XI. As a further overture to the French monarch, Alexander VIII also named two more French cardinals, a move that largely irkedLeopold I, Holy Roman Emperor and saw the emperor withdraw his ambassador to the Holy See. Moreover, the pontiff was less concerned with the emperor's actions primarily because the emperor had primarily been indifferent to defending against the Ottoman Empire in favor of hostility with the French.
On 16 October 1690, the day that he celebrated a canonization Mass, it was noticed that Alexander VIII appeared to look relatively sluggish and hence seemed like he had fallen ill. While it was hypothesized that he may have had a minorstroke, his doctors suggested that the pope rest but were unsure of what exactly had caused the pope to fall ill. On 20 January 1691, CardinalForbin Janson informed King Louis XIV that the pope was seriously ill, and on 22 January, that his condition had dramatically deteriorated and that his nephew was pessimistic about his uncle's chances. On 27 January, it was reported thatgangrene had set in while Alexander VIII met with twelve cardinals on 30 January. Alexander VIII died at 4:00pm on 1 February 1691 while aplague from Naples had spread to Rome, infecting the pope and hastening his death.[10]
His grandiose tomb inSaint Peter's was commissioned by his grandnephew, Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, and designed by CountArrigo di San Martino. The bas-relief at the base and the flanking figures (1704) were sculpted byAngelo de' Rossi, while the bronze statue of the pope was cast byGiuseppe Bertosi.[11]
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