| Alexander Jannaeus | |
|---|---|
| King and High Priest of Judaea | |
 Portrait fromPromptuarium Iconum Insigniorum (1553) byGuillaume Rouillé | |
| King of Judaea | |
| Reign | c. 103 – c. 76 BCE |
| Predecessor | Aristobulus I |
| Successor | Salome Alexandra |
| High Priest of Judaea | |
| Reign | c. 103 – c. 76 BCE |
| Predecessor | Aristobulus I |
| Successor | Hyrcanus II |
| Born | c. 130 BCE |
| Died | c. 76 BCE Ragaba |
| Spouse | Salome Alexandra |
| Issue | Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II |
| Dynasty | Hasmonean |
| Father | John Hyrcanus |
| Religion | Hellenistic Judaism |
Alexander Jannaeus (Ancient Greek:Ἀλέξανδρος ἸανναῖοςAléxandros Iannaîos,[1] English: "Alexander Jannaios", usually Latinised to "Alexander Jannaeus";Hebrew:יַנַּאיYannaʾy;[2] bornJonathanיהונתן) was the second king of theHasmonean dynasty, who ruled over an expanding kingdom of Judaea from 103 to 76 BCE. A son ofJohn Hyrcanus, he inherited the throne from his brotherAristobulus I, andmarried his brother's widow, QueenSalome Alexandra. From his conquests to expand the kingdom to a bloody civil war, Alexander's reign has been described as cruel and oppressive with never-ending conflict.[3] The major historical sources of Alexander's life areJosephus'sAntiquities of the Jews andThe Jewish War.[4]
Under Alexander Jannaeus, the Hasmonean kingdom reached its greatest territorial extent, encompassing most ofIsrael'sMediterranean coastline and the regions surrounding theJordan River. His reign was defined by nearly continuous conflict, including campaigns againstHellenistic cities,Nabataean forces in the east, andSeleucid armies in the north. Domestically, he faced fierce opposition, particularly from thePharisees, due to his autocratic rule, reliance on mercenaries, heavy taxation, and controversial religious policies. These tensions culminated in aviolent civil war and the mass execution of his opponents. He died around 76 BCE during the siege ofRagaba and was succeeded as ruler by his wife, Salome Alexandra.
Alexander Jannaeus was the third son of John Hyrcanus by his second wife. When Aristobulus I, Hyrcanus' son by his first wife, became king, he deemed it necessary for his own security to imprison his half-brother. Aristobulus died after a reign of one year. Upon his death in 103 BCE, his widowSalome Alexandra had Alexander and his brothers released from prison. One of these brothers is said to have unsuccessfully sought the throne.
Alexander, as the oldest living brother, had the right not only to the throne, but also to Salome,the widow of his deceased brother, who had died childless. Although she was thirteen years older than him, he married her in accordance with the Jewish law oflevirate marriage. By her he had two sons: the eldest,Hyrcanus II, becamehigh priest in 62 BCE; andAristobulus II, who was high priest from 66 – 62 BCE and started a bloody civil war with his brother, ending in his capture byPompey the Great.
Like his brother, Alexander was an avid supporter of the aristocratic priestly faction known as theSadducees. His wife Salome however came from aPharisaic family. Her brother wasSimeon ben Shetach, aPharisee leader. Salome was therefore more sympathetic to their cause, and protected them throughout Alexander’s turbulent reign.
Like his father, Alexander served as high priest. This raised the ire of the Pharisees, who insisted that these two offices should not be combined. They also said that Alexander was not allowed to serve as high priest, because his mother had been captured and raped inModi'in. This infuriated the king and led him to turn against the Pharisees, and he persecuted them until his death.[5]
Alexander's first expedition was against the city ofPtolemais. While Alexander went ahead to besiege the city, Zoilus ofDora took the opportunity to see if he could relieve Ptolemais in hopes of establishing his rule over coastal territories. Alexander's Hasmonean army quickly defeated Zoilus's forces. Ptolemais then requested aid fromPtolemy IX Lathyros, who had been banished by his motherCleopatra III. Ptolemy had founded a kingdom inCyprus after being cast out by his mother.[6]
The situation at Ptolemais was seized as an opportunity by Ptolemy to possibly gain a stronghold and control the Judean coast in order to invade Egypt by sea. An individual named Demaenetus convinced the inhabitants of their imprudence in requesting Ptolemy's assistance. They realised that by allying themselves with Ptolemy, they had unintentionally declared war on Cleopatra. When Ptolemy arrived at the city, the inhabitants denied him access.[6]
Alexander too didn't want to be involved in a war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy, so he abandoned his campaign against Ptolemais and returned toJerusalem. After offering Ptolemy four hundredtalents and a peace treaty in return for Zoilus's death, Alexander met him with treachery by negotiating an alliance with Cleopatra. Once he had formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Alexander continued his conquests by capturing the coastal cities of Dora andStraton's Tower.[7]
As soon as Ptolemy learned of Alexander's scheme, he was determined to kill him. Ptolemy put Ptolemais under siege, but left his generals to attack the city, while he continued to pursue Alexander. Ptolemy's pursuit caused much destruction in theGalilee region. Here he capturedAsochis on theSabbath, taking ten thousand people as prisoners. Ptolemy also initiated an unsuccessful attack onSepphoris.[7]
Ptolemy and Alexander engaged in battle at Asophon near theJordan River. Estimated to have fifty to eighty thousand soldiers, Alexander's army consisted of bothJews andpagans. At the head of his armed forces were his elite pagan mercenaries. They were specialised inGreek-stylephalanx. One of Ptolemy's commanders, Philostephanus, began the first attack by crossing the river that divided both forces.[8]
The Hasmoneans had the advantage. Philostephanus held back a certain amount of his forces whom he sent to recover lost ground. Perceiving them as vast reinforcements, Alexander's army fled. Some of his retreating forces tried to push back, but quickly dispersed as Ptolemy's forces pursued Alexander's fleeing army. Thirty to fifty thousand Hasmonean soldiers died.[8]
Ptolemy's forces at Ptolemais succeeded in capturing the city. He then continued to conquer much of the Hasmonean kingdom, occupying the entirety of northern Judea, the coast, and territories east of the Jordan River. While doing so, he pillaged villages and ordered his soldiers to cannibalise women and children to create psychological fear in his enemies. At the time, Salome Alexandra was notified of Cleopatra's approach to Judea.[9]
Realising that her son had amassed a formidable force in Judea, Cleopatra appointed Jewish generalsAnanias andChelkias to command her forces. She went with a fleet towards Judea. When Cleopatra arrived at Ptolemais, the people refused her entry, so she besieged the city. Ptolemy, believing Syria was defenseless, withdrew to Cyprus after his miscalculation. While in pursuit of Ptolemy, Chelkias died inCoele-Syria.[10]
The war abruptly came to an end with Ptolemy fleeing to Cyprus. Alexander then approached Cleopatra. Bowing before her, he requested to retain his rule. Cleopatra was urged by her subordinates to annex Judea. Ananias demanded she consider the residential Egyptian Jews who were the main support of her throne. This induced Cleopatra to modify her longings for Judea. Alexander met her demands and suspended his campaigns. These negotiations took place atScythopolis. Cleopatra died five years later. Confident, after her death, Alexander found himself free to continue with new campaigns.[11]
Alexander capturedGadara and fought to capture the strong fortress ofAmathus in theTransjordan region, but was defeated.[12] He was more successful in his expedition against the coastal cities, capturingRaphia andAnthedon. In 96 BCE, Jannaeus defeated the inhabitants ofGaza. This victory gained Judean control over the Mediterranean outlet of the mainNabataean trade route.[13] Alexander initially returned his focus back to the Transjordan region where, avenging his previous defeat, he destroyed Amathus.[14]
Determined to proceed with future campaigns despite his initial defeat at Amathus,Alexander set his focus on Gaza. A victory against the city wasn't so easily achieved. Gaza's generalApollodotus strategically employed a night attack against the Hasmonean army. With a force of two thousand less-skilled soldiers and ten thousand slaves, Gaza's military was able to deceive the Hasmonean army into believing they were being attacked by Ptolemy. The Gazans killed many and the Hasmonean army fled the battle. When morning exposed the delusive tactic, Alexander continued his assault but lost a thousand additional soldiers.[15]
The Gazans remained defiant in hopes that the Nabataean kingdom would come to their aid. The city eventually suffered defeat due to its own leadership. Gaza at the time was governed by two brothers, Lysimachus and Apollodotus. Lysimachus convinced the people to surrender, and Alexander peacefully entered the city. Though he at first seemed peaceful, Alexander suddenly turned against the inhabitants. Some men killed their wives and children out of desperation, to ensure they wouldn't be captured and enslaved. Others burned down their homes to prevent the soldiers from plundering. The town council and five hundred civilians took refuge at theTemple of Apollo, where Alexander had them massacred.[15]
TheJudean Civil War initially began after theconquest of Gaza around 96 BCE. Due to Jannaeus's victory at Gaza, the Nabataean kingdom no longer had direct access to theMediterranean Sea. Alexander soon captured Gadara, which together with the loss of Gaza caused the Nabataeans to lose their main trade routes leading toRome andDamascus. After losing Gadara, the Nabataean kingObodas I launched an attack against Alexander in a steep valley at Gadara, where Alexander barely managed to escape. After his defeat in theBattle of Gadara, Jannaeus returned to Jerusalem, and was met with fierce Jewish opposition.[16]
During the Jewish holidaySukkot, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as theHigh Priest at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his displeasure against the Pharisees by refusing to perform the waterlibation ceremony properly: instead of pouring it on the altar, he poured it on his feet. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting him withetrogim (citrons).[17] They made the situation worse by insulting him. They called him a descendant of acaptive woman and unsuitable to hold office and to sacrifice. Outraged, he killed six thousand people. Alexander also had wooden barriers built around the altar and the temple preventing people from going near him. Only the priests were permitted to enter.[18] This incident during the Feast of Tabernacles was a major factor leading up to the Judean Civil War.[17]
After Jannaeus succeeded early in the war, the rebels asked for Seleucid assistance. Judean insurgents joined forces withDemetrius III Eucaerus to fight against Jannaeus. Alexander had gathered six thousand two hundred mercenaries and twenty thousand Jews for battle. Demetrius had forty thousand soldiers and three thousand horses. There were attempts from both sides to persuade each other to abandon positions, but were unsuccessful. The Seleucid forces defeated Jannaeus atShechem, and all of Alexander's mercenaries were killed in battle.[19]
This defeat forced Alexander to take refuge in the mountains. In sympathy towards Jannaeus, six thousand Judean rebels ultimately returned to him. In fear of this news, Demetrius withdrew. War between Jannaeus and the rebels who returned to him continued. They fought until Alexander achieved victory. Most of the rebels died in battle, while the remaining rebels fled to the city of Bethoma until they were defeated.[19]
Jannaeus had brought the surviving rebels back to Jerusalem where he had eight hundred Jews, primarily Pharisees, crucified. Before their deaths, Alexander had the rebels' wives and children executed before their eyes as Jannaeus ate with his concubines.[19] TheNahum Commentary, a sectarian text fromQumran, refers to the execution of opponents by a figure identified by scholars as Alexander Jannaeus, portrayed as the "Lion of Wrath" who hanged members of the group called the "Seekers-after-smooth-things" (דורשי החלקות), understood to be the Pharisees, for seeking support from "Demetrius king of Greece".[20] Excavations at the modern-dayRussian Compound in Jerusalem uncovered a sealed cistern containing the remains of at least 124 individuals, many exhibiting signs of decapitation and deliberate trauma, with no evidence of resistance or combat. According to the excavators, the burial may reflect a massacre of civilians carried out by Alexander Jannaeus.[21]
Alexander later returned the land he had seized inMoab andGalaaditis from the Nabataeans in order to have them end their support for the Jewish rebels. The remaining rebels who numbered eight thousand, fled by night in fear of Alexander. Afterward, all rebel hostility ceased and Alexander's reign continued undisturbed.[19]
From 83 to 80 BCE, Alexander continued campaigning in the east. The Nabataean kingAretas III managed to defeat Alexander in battle. However, Alexander continued expanding the Hasmonean kingdom intoTransjordan. InGaulanitis, he captured the cities ofGolan,Seleucia, andGamala. InGalaaditis, the cities ofPella,Dium, andGerasa. Alexander had Pella destroyed because its inhabitants refused toJudaize.[22]
He is believed to have expanded and fortified theHasmonean palace nearJericho.[23]
For the last three years of his life, Alexander Jannaeus suffered from the combined effects ofalcoholism andquartan ague (malaria).[22]
After a reign of 27 years, he died c. 76 BCE at the age of fifty-one, during the siege ofRagaba.[24]
In Josephus's "Antiquities," he presents an account that differs from his earlier "War" and Syncellus's accounts. According to Josephus, Jannaeus fell fatally ill on the battlefield atRagaba, with his wifeSalome Alexandra present. Jannaeus instructed her to hide his death until she captured Ragaba and to subsequently share power with the Pharisees. He also requested that she allow the Pharisees to abuse his corpse, believing they would then give him an honorable burial, despite this request violatingDeuteronomy 21:22-23. This request is interpreted as Jannaeus seeking atonement for previously violating this commandment by abusing the bodies of crucified Pharisees.[25] Kenneth Atkinson writes that Josephus's style and wording suggest Jannaeus died in Jerusalem and never reached Ragaba. Josephus may have concealed this fact to hide the undignified nature of this death.[25]
Alexander's reign ended with a significant political decision, naming his wife as successor and granting her the authority to appoint the next high priest.[25]
Alexander Jannaeus of Judaea Died: 76 BCE | ||
| Jewish titles | ||
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| Preceded by | King of Judaea 103–76 BCE | Succeeded by |
| High Priest of Judaea 103–76 BCE | Succeeded by | |
| International | |
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| National | |
| Other | |
