Ahom Kingdom ahüm | |||||||||||||
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| 1228–1826[1] | |||||||||||||
 of Ahom kingdom, Kingdom of Assam, Assam Kingdom, Assamese Kingdom](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAhom_insignia_plain.svg) Ngi-ngao-kham[2](Royal insignia) | |||||||||||||
 The Ahom Kingdom, 1826. | |||||||||||||
| Status | Kingdom | ||||||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||||||
| Common languages |
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| Religion |
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| Demonym(s) | Ahom •Assamese | ||||||||||||
| Government | Bureaucraticfeudalism[4] andAristocraticmonarchy[5] | ||||||||||||
| Chao Pha, Swargadeo[6] | |||||||||||||
• 1228–1268 | Sukaphaa | ||||||||||||
• 1497–1539 | Suhungmung | ||||||||||||
• 1603–1641 | Susenghphaa | ||||||||||||
• 1696–1714 | Sukhrungphaa | ||||||||||||
• 1833–1838 | Purandar Singha | ||||||||||||
| Historical era | Middle Age andColonial Age | ||||||||||||
• Established bySukaphaa | 1228 | ||||||||||||
| 1497 | |||||||||||||
| 1543–68 | |||||||||||||
| 1615–1682 | |||||||||||||
| 1769 | |||||||||||||
| 1817 | |||||||||||||
| 1826[1] | |||||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||||
| 1826[8] | 41,957.807 km2 (16,200.000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||
• 1711[7] | 2,880,000 | ||||||||||||
• 1833[9] | 2,50,000 | ||||||||||||
| Currency | Ahom coinage | ||||||||||||
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| Today part of | India Myanmar | ||||||||||||
| Part ofa series on the |
| History of Assam |
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Contemporary |
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List of Ahom kings
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TheAhom Kingdom or theKingdom of Assam[10] (/ˈɑːhɔːm/; 1228–1826)[1] was alate medieval[11] kingdom in theBrahmaputra Valley (present-dayAssam) that retained its independence for nearly 600 years despite encounteringMughal expansion inNortheast India. Established bySukaphaa, aTai prince fromMöng Mao (present-dayYunnan Province,China), it began as aMöng in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra based on wet rice agriculture. It expanded suddenly underSuhungmung in the 16th century[12] and became multi-ethnic in character, casting a profound effect on the political and social life of the entire Brahmaputra valley. The kingdom became weaker with the rise of theMoamoria rebellion, and subsequently fell to repeatedBurmese invasions of Assam. With the defeat of the Burmese after theFirst Anglo-Burmese War and theTreaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the kingdom passed intoEast India Company hands.
Though it came to be called the Ahom kingdom in the colonial and subsequent times, it was largely multi-ethnic, with the ethnicTai-Ahom people constituting less than 10% of the population toward the end.[13]People from different ethnic groups became a part of the Ahom population due to the process known asAhomisation. The identity of theAhom people in this kingdom was fluid, with the king controlling who belonged to it and who did not.[14] TheAhoms initially called their kingdomMong Dun Shun Kham till 1401 (Assamese:xunor-xophura; English:casket of gold), but adoptedAssam in later times.[15] The British-controlledprovince after 1838 and later the Indian state ofAssam came to be known by this name. The kingdom maintained close political ties with other Tai-states especially withMong Kwang (Nara) till the end of its rule in the 19th century.[16]
The Ahom kingdom was established in 1228 whenSukaphaa, a Tai prince, entered theBrahmaputra valley having crossed the ruggedPatkai mountain range fromMong Mao.[17] Sukaphaa probably started his journey from his homeland with a small number, but he was supported and joined by other Tai chiefs and common followers along the way[18] and entered Assam with approximately 9,000 persons.[19][20] His destiny wasUpper Assam, earlier the domain of theKamarupa kingdom but which had since lapsed into deteriorating conditions,[21] and his intention was not to conquer and raid but to permanently settle in fallow land and practice agriculture[22]
The Ahoms were primarily responsible for converting the undulating alluvial forest and marshy plains in upper Assam to flat rice fields able to hold plain water for rice cultivation via a network of embankments.[23] The Tai-Shans had with them the basic political structures for state-building (Mung), surplus producing technologies such as sedentary wet-rice cultivation and hydrology, a patriarchal social organisation based on clans (foid), and aliterary form oftheir language.[24] Whereas the earlier state formations (Kamarupa) borrowed political structures fromNorth India that led to Indo-Aryan domination, the Ahom state formation provided an alternate model built onSoutheast Asian political structures, and which provided the space for the development of a distinct political, social and cultural identity.[25] Though Brahminical myth-making was a common feature that all ancient and medieval kingdoms—such asChutia andKachari kingdoms—in Assam utilised for legitimacy to various degrees,[26] the Ahoms were able to use their alternate Lengdon-based legitimacy to establish their rule and effectively negotiate with the indigenous people. Nevertheless the laterTungkhungia kings veered towardsSaktism[27] and the persecution of theshudra Mahantas and their laity that began during the reign ofSiva Singha led to theMoamoria rebellion and ultimately to the eclipse of the kingdom.[28]
Sukaphaa (1228–1268) spent a couple of decades moving fromplace to place establishing colonies and finally settled down inCharaideo in 1253.[29][30] He established the offices of the Dangarias— theBurhagohain (Chao-Phrungmung) and theBorgohain (Chao-Thaonmung).[31] In the 1280s, these two offices were given independent regions of control; partly hereditary and partly elected, the king and the two counsellors held each other in check and balance.[31] These institutions of checks and balances thus seeded held fast for six hundred years—in the 18th century John Peter Wade, a British officer, observed these unique institutions and novel system of government.[32] Sukaphaa had instructed that events during his rule be chronicled, a practice sustained by his successors; and there emerged the institution ofBuranji writing, a practice of historiography rare in India.[33] In the late medieval era, the Ahom kingdom was known to be akaghazi raj (a kingdom with records) just as theMughal Empire was.[34]
At the time of their advent, the Ahoms came with advanced technologies of rice cultivation, and it was their belief that they were divinely ordained to turn fallow land to agriculture and also to absorb stateless and shifting agriculturists to their own ways.[35] The shifting people were calledkha and many suchkha people were ceremonially adopted into different Ahom clans,[36] a process calledAhomisation. Sukaphaa befriended those among the Morans and Barahi who were amenable to join him and put to the sword those who opposed him,[37] and in due course, many others were incorporated into Ahom clans.[38] The Ahoms were acutely aware of their smaller numbers, and adroitly avoided confrontations with larger groups.[39] The additions via Ahomisation enhanced the Ahom numbers significantly. This process of Ahomization was particularly significant till the 16th century when underSuhungmung, the kingdom made large territorial expansions at the cost of theChutiya and theKachari kingdoms.
At this initial stage the kingdom was still not fully sovereign. Sukaphaa sent his word of allegiance and tributes toMong Mao, a practice that was continued by some of his successors till about the early 14th century when the power of Mong Mao faded to be replaced the power of Mong Kwang, at which point the Ahoms stopped the tributes.[40] The Ahoms began to call their domainMong Dun Sun Kham ("a country of golden gardens").[41] Though Sukaphaa had avoided the Namdang region mindful of the numerically small Ahom contingent,[42] but his son Suteuphaa made the Kacharis withdraw on their own via a stratagem and the Ahoms expanded into it;[43] but no further expansions of the Ahom domain occurred for the next two hundred years. The Ahom kingdom, for most of its history, had been closed and population movement closely monitored—nevertheless, there were two significant contacts. One was a friendly encounter withChutia kingdom that turned into a conflict, and the other was a marriage alliance with theKamata kingdom.[44] At the end of the 14th century, the nascent Ahom polity faced crises of succession, two regicides, and three quick interregnum periods when the kingdom was without a king.[45]
SudangphaaBamuni Konwar (r. 1397–1407), born and raised in a Brahmin household inHabung, was identified as a descendant of a past king and installed on the throne by theBurhagohain andBorgohain to end the period of crisis.[46] He established Brahmin officers, advisors and communities near the capital and the Brahmin influence, though negligible, was felt for the first time.[47] A number of rebellions erupted purportedly against this influence but Sudangphaa was able to suppress them and solidify his rule.[48] One of the rebels invited a military expedition from Mong Kwang (called Nara in the Buranjis, the successor state of Mong Mao to which the early Ahom kings used to send tribute) resulting in a clash in 1401—but Sudangphaa defeated the expedition and concluded the conflict with a treaty that fixed the boundary between the two polities atPatkai.[49] This event was significant since it moved the Ahom polity from implicit subordination to explicit sovereignty, and this was accompanied by the transition of the name of the polity fromMong-Dun-Sun-Kham to "Assam",[15] a derivative fromShan/Shyam.[50] Sudangphaa established a new capital at Charagua, broke the clan allegiances that held the Ahom polity together earlier replacing it with political authority of the king, and introduced the tradition of thesingarigharutha ceremony, the state coronation of the Ahom kings that symbolised royal Ahom sovereignty, authority and legitimacy.[51]
Sudangphaa settled Habung brahmins close his capital, settled the sons of his adopted Brahmin family in frontier areas, dismantled the tribal allegiances that held the polity together earlier and brought the Ahom kingdom very close to a full-fledged state.[52]
The next hundred years saw the kingdom mostly suppressing rebellious Naga groups, but a conflict with theDimasa kingdom in 1490 saw the Ahoms, not strong enough to take them on frontally, suing for peace.[53] The Ahom royalty continuously improved their relationship with the Brahmans which enabled them to gain goodwill with the Indo-Aryanized tribal groups and consolidate power.[54]
The Ahom kingdom transitioned into a full state rather dramatically in a short period during the reign ofSuhungmungDihingia Raja (r. 1497–1539).[55] It began first with a consolidation of the militia in 1510,[56] followed by an expansion into theBhuyan region at Habung in 1512 (probably with the help of the descendants of the Habungia Brahmans settled during Sudangpha's time[57]). The Indo-Aryan Bhuyans were relocated to the capital and absorbed into the lower echelons of the growing state as scribes and warriors.[58] They in turn helped in the elimination of the royalty of the advancedChutia kingdom in 1523; and that kingdom's nobility, commanders, professional classes, warriors and technologies were absorbed into the Ahom kingdom.[59] It was this formation of the Ahom kingdom that met the aggression from Bengal under Turbak in 1532 and it was able to eliminate the aggressive leadership (with significant loss to itself) and pursue the retreating invaders to theKaratoya river.[60]
In 1536, after the series of contacts with theKachari kingdom, the Ahom rule extended up to theKolong River in Nagaon;[61] and by the end of Suhungmung's reign, the size of the kingdom had effectively doubled.[62]
These expansions created significant changes in the kingdom—the Assamese-speaking Hinduized subjects outnumbered the Ahoms themselves;[63] and the absorption of the Chutia kingdom meant a wide range of artisan skills became available to it increasing the scope for division of labour.[64] To provide legitimacy to the rule of the Ahom kings among the new subjects Suhungmung assumed the titleSwarganarayana (Swargadeo),[65] though nothing like theRajputisation process occurred with the Ahoms.[66] The nature of the kings institutional relationship to the ministers changed with the creation of a new position, theBorpatrogohain, named after a Chutia office;[67][68] and the creation of the offices ofSadiyakhowa Gohain (territories acquired from the Chutia kingdom)[69] and theMarangikhowa Gohain (territories acquired from the Kachari kingdom),[61] both of which were reserved for the Borgohain and Burhagohain lineages.[70] The traditional nobles (Chao) now aligned with the Brahmin literati and an expanded ruling class developed.[71] And when the Ahoms under Ton KhamBorgohain[72] pursued the invaders and reached theKaratoya river[73] they began to see themselves as the rightful heir of the erstwhileKamarupa kingdom.[74]
The Ahom kingdom became more broad-based and took many features of its mature form underPratap Singha (r. 1603–1641), primarily to meet the sustained attacks from the Mughals.[75] ThePaik system was reorganized in 1609 under the professionalkhel system, replacing the kinship-basedphoid system; and paiks could be permanently alienated to non-royal institutions via royal grants.[76] Under the same king, the offices of theBorphukan (viceroy of territories acquired from the Koches and the Mughals), and theBorbarua (the "secretary" of the royal government) were established to increase the number ofPatra Mantris to five, along with other smaller offices.[75] The practices of usingBrahmins solely for diplomatic missions,[77] the Ahom kings adopting a Hindu name in addition to their Ahom names, and patronising Hindu establishments began with Pratap Singha, though formal initiation of the Ahom kings into Hinduism did not occur till 1648.[78] The Assamese language entered the Ahoms court for the first time and briefly coexisted and eventually replaced the Ahom language.[79] No more major restructuring of the state structure was attempted until the end of the kingdom.
After the division of the Koch kingdom between two branches of the Koch dynasty in 1581, the Ahoms allied with their immediate western neighbor, theKoch Hajo branch, from 1603 to prop them as a buffer against the Mughals who had extended their rule toBengal by 1576. The collapse of the Koch Hajo power in 1614 resulted in the Mughals coming to power up to the Barnadi river. The Mughals attempted further ingress to the east in 1616 with theBattle of Samdhara which marked the beginning of theAhom–Mughal conflicts which lasted the till 1682 in theBattle of Itakhuli, when the Ahoms were able to push the Mughals back to the west of theManas river permanently.
In 1657, owing to the 'War of succession' among the sons ofShah Jahan. Ahom kingJayadhwaj Singha extended his authority, occupiedKamrup, preventing the other rebellious Koch king Pran Narayan from securing his footing. He speedily extended his authority over whole of western Assam. He brought under his domain the whole Brahmaputra Valley, from Sadiya in the east andSherpur on the south. Thus, the Ahom state attained the greatest territorial zenith.
In 1662,Aurangzeb to bring the lost tracts and to punish the rebels elements in that quarter, launched an invasion under his chief lieutenantMir Jumla II, in this invasion the Ahoms could not resist up well, and the Mughals occupied the capital, Garhgaon. Unable to keep it, and in at the end of theBattle of Saraighat, the Ahoms not only fended off a major Mughal invasion but extended their boundaries west, up to theManas river. The western border was fixed atManas river after theBattle of Itakhuli, which remained the same till the annexation by the British.
Following theBattle of Saraighat, the kingdom fell straight under ten years of political disorder. During this period the nobles exercised immense power, and seven kings were put on the throne and deposed. In the meantime,Kamrup went back in the hands of Mughals for a few years.
Gadadhar Singha (r. 1682–1696) established the 'Tungkhungia rule' in Assam, which continued to remain in power till the end of the kingdom. In 1682, the Mughals were defeated in theBattle of Itakhul, and Manas river was fixed as the western boundary. Gadadhar Singha came in conflict with the VaisnavaSatras who began commencing immense power and influence over the state and people, and started a wide–spread persecution of the Vaisnavites.
The rule ofTungkhungia Ahom kings was marked by achievements in the Arts and engineering constructions, the Tungkhungia reigme witnessed a relative time of peace and stability till theMoamoria rebellion, also festering internal conflicts that tore the kingdom asunder. According to Guha (1986) Ahom Assam continued to flourish till 1770. The Tungkhungia regime witnessed a relative time of peace till first half of the 18th century, where the population increased, trade expanded, Coinage and monetization made headway. New arts and crafts, new crops and even new style of dress were introduced.
Rudra Singha alias Sukhrungphaa (r. 1696–1714), under whom the Kingdom attained its zenith. He subdued the kingdoms ofDimasa andJaintia. He had made extensive preparations to extend the boundary west–towards, attempted to make a confederacy ofHindu kings of eastern India againstMughals. But he died right before he could execute his plans in 1714. Rudra Singha had re–instated the Vaisnava Satras, he himself had taken initiation of the Auniati Gosain (the most influential Brahmana Sattradhikar) but later in his life he got inclined towardsShaktism, considering it to be more suitable for a monarch, he invited a famous Sakta Brahmana from Bengal–Krishnaram Bhattacharya alias Pravatiya Gosain. From his death bed he expressed his will that, all his five sons to be kings in an executive manner and advised them to take initiation of Parvatiya Gosain[80]
Siva Singha alias Sutanphaa (r. 1714–1744), he dropped his father's plan to invade Benagal. He took the initiation of Parvatiya Gosain and established him 'Nilachal mountain' with extensive land grants and paiks.[81] Siva Singha was very much under the influence of Brahmanas and astrologers, 1722 it was predicted by the astrologers that his reign would soon come to a end owing to the evil influence ofChatra–bhanga–yoga.[82] Therefore, he transferred the royal umbrella and throne to his wifePhuleshwari who was given the title of 'Bar–Raja' on the advice of Pravatiya Gosain. Phuleswari melded too much with the religious affairs, she had caused the insult of the Shudra–Mahantas.[28] After the death of Phuleswari, two other wives of Siva Singha were set on the position of 'Bar–Raja', namelyAmbika and Sarbeswari. Siva Singha reign was peaceful, except an expedition sent against the Daflas, he had caused the erection of many temples and made numerous grants to the religious sites and brahmanas. He died in 1744, and his younger brotherPramatta Singha was set up on the throne setting aside the claims of Siva Singha's son.[83]
Pramatta Singha alias Sunenphaa (r. 1744–1751), nothing of importance is recorded during his reign. He had erected theRang Ghar with masonry and built the Sukreswar andRudreswar temples in North–Guwahati. During his reign,Kirti Chandra Borbarua gained much of his political influence. In 1744, he received an ambassador from the king ofTwipra. He died in 1751.
Rajeswar Singha alias Supremphaa (r. 1751–1759), he was put on the throne byKirti Chandra Borbarua by setting aside the claims of seniority of his elder brotherBarjana Gohain. Rajeswar Singha had erected the most number of temples among the Ahom Kings, he was an orthodox Hindu and took initiation of Nati–Gosian (a relative of Pravatiya Gosain). In 1765, he sentan expedition to Manipur whose kingJay Singha made an appeal to the Ahom king to recover his country from theBurmese occupation. The first expeditionary force had to be routed off, which was sent through 'Naga Hills', in 1767 another force was despatched through the oldRaha route. The second expedition was successful and achieved its objective in recovering Manipur.Kirti Chandra Borbarua who was the most influential noble in the Ahom court, had caused the burning ofBuranjis.[84] Rajeswar Singha's reign marked the end of Ahom supremacy and glory, the signs were decay was already visible during his reign. He was succeeded by his younger brotherLakshmi Singha alias Sunyeophaa (r. 1769–1780).[85]
The Ahom kingdom by the mid-18th century was indeed an over-burdened hierarchical structure, supported by a weak institutional base and meagre economic surplus. ThePaik system which in the 17th century had helped the kingdom to repulse the repeated Mughal invasions, had become extremely outdated.[86] The later phase of the rule was also marked by increasing social conflicts, leading to theMoamoria rebellion were able to capture and maintain power at the capital Rangpur for some years but were finally removed with the help of the British under Captain Welsh. The following repression led to a large depopulation due to emigration as well as execution, but the conflicts were never resolved. A much-weakened kingdom fell to repeated Burmese attacks and finally after theTreaty of Yandabo in 1826, the control of the kingdom passed into British hands.
The Ahom kingdom was based on thePaik system, a type ofcorvee labor that is neitherfeudal norAsiatic. The first coins were introduced byJayadhwaj Singha in the 17th century, though the system of personal service under thePaik system persisted. In the 17th century when the Ahom kingdom expanded to include erstwhileKoch andMughal areas, it came into contact with their revenue systems and adapted accordingly.
Trade was carried on usually through barter and use of circulation of money was limited. According to Shihabududdin Tailash, currency in the Ahom kingdom consisted of cowries, rupees and gold coins. With the increase of external trade since the reign ofRudra Singha, there was a corresponding increase in the circulation of money. Inscriptions dating from the reign ofSiva Singha, gives the price of number of commodities like rice, ghee, oil, pulses, goat, pigeon in connection with worship in different temples of the kingdom.[87] This concludes that the barter economy was in the process of being replaced by the money economy, which was the outcome of Assam's developing economic ties both with feudal India and the neighbouring countries of the north east.
Due to trade with Tibet, a coin ofJayadhwaj Singha carries a single Chinese character on each side reading Zang Bao. This had been translated as 'treasury of your honour'. Nicholas Rodhes read the inscription as 'Currency of Tibet', Also these two characters were used by the Chinese inLhasa between 1792 and 1836 with the meaning 'Tibetan currency. Furthermore, there was a significant contact betweenChina andTibet in the mid-seventeen century, so it is not unlikely that the Assamese would have thought have thought that a Chinese character was an appropriate for Assamese-Tibetan trade coin. This piece evidently was an attempt byJayadhwaj Singha to facilitate trade with Chinese knowing person coming from the direction of Tibet.[88] Rudra Singha is also said to have established an extensive trade with Tibet and to have encouraged intercourse with other nations although he strictly limited the extent to which foreigners were allowed into the country. Presumably, some of the coins of his reign were struck with the silver earned from these trading activities.[89]
Another point by which we can understand the trade relation of Ahoms with other nations is through the use of Silver coins. It is to be noted that there are no silver mines in the northeast or in the rest of India, so the metal entered as a result of trade.
In extent the kingdom's length was about 500 miles (800 km) and with an average breadth of 60 miles (96 km).[90] The kingdom can be divided into three major regions: the north bank (Uttarkul), the south bank (Dakhinkul), and the island ofMajuli. The north bank (Uttarkul) was more populated and fertile but the Ahom kings set up their capital on the south bank (Dakinkul) because it had more inaccessible strongholds and defensible central places.[91]
From 1500 to 1770 A.D., one comes across definite signs of demographic growth in the region. There was terrible depopulation In course of theMoamoria rebellion (1769–1805) when more than half of the population fell off. Again, during theBurmese regime, the Burmese depredations (1817-1825) further reduced the population by 1/3. It shows that only 7/8 lakh people remained, at the time of British annexation. KingPratap Singha is who, systematised the population distribution and settlement of villages. The census of adult male population of the state was taken very strictly so that every working man would be registered for the state service. The census were properly recorded in registers calledpaikar piyalar kakat.[92]
The following table estimates the population composition of classes, during the reign of kingRajeswar Singha (1751-1769). According to the population estimates computed byGunabhiram Barua.
| Aristocracy | Slaves/Bondsmen | Chamua | Karni Paik | Total Population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1% | 9% | 25% | 65% | 100% |
| 24,000 | 2,16,000 | 6,00,000 | 15,60,000 | 24,00,000[93] |
| Year | Estimated population | Estimated population | Estimated | Estimated population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1615 | 16,80,000 | 1,12,48,286 | ||
| 1620 | 24,40,000 | |||
| 1669 | 16,00,000 | |||
| 1711 | 28,80,000 | |||
| 1750 | 30,00,000+ | |||
| 1765 | 24,00,000 | |||
| 1833 | 2,50,000 |
There were towns, but only a small percentage of the population lived in such towns. Some important towns of Ahom time were Rangpur, Garhgoan, Guwahati and Hajo. The capital city ofRangpur, was found to be 20 miles (32.18 km) in extent and thickly populated by Capt. Welsh in 1794. The population, however, never exceeded 10 thousand souls.[98]
The Ahom kingdom was ruled by a king, calledSwargadeo (Ahom language:Chao-Pha), who had to be a descendant of the first kingSukaphaa. Succession was generally byprimogeniture but occasionally the great Gohains (Dangarias) could elect another descendant ofSukaphaa from a different line or even depose an enthroned one.
Dangarias:Sukaphaa had two great Gohains to aid him in administration:Burhagohain and theBorgohain. In the 1280s, they were given independent territories, they were veritable sovereigns in their given territories calledbilat orrajya. TheBurhagohain's territory was between Sadiya and Gerelua river in the north bank of the Brahmaputra river and the Borgohain's territory was to the west up to the Burai river.[99] They were given total command over thepaiks that they controlled. These positions were generally filled from specific families. Princes who were eligible for the position of Swargadeo were not considered for these positions and vice versa. In the 1527,Suhungmung added a third Gohain,Borpatrogohain.[100] The Borpatrogohain's territory was located between the territories of the other two Gohains.
Royal officers:Pratap Singha added two offices,Borbarua andBorphukan, that were directly under the king. The Borbarua, who acted as the military as well as the judicial head, was in command of the region east of Kaliabor not under the command of theDangarias. He could use only a section of the paiks at his command for his personal use (as opposed to the Dangariyas), the rest rendering service to the Ahom state. The Borphukan was in military and civil command over the region west of Kaliabor, and acted as theSwargadeo's viceroy in the west. Borbaruas were mostly from differentMoran, Kachari, Chiring andKhamti communities, while the Borphukan of lower Assam was appointed from theChutia community.[101] The Borbarua and Borphukan offices were not hereditary and thus could be chosen from any families.
Patra Mantris: The five positions constituted thePatra Mantris (Council of Ministers). From the time of Supimphaa (1492–1497), one of thePatra Mantris was made theRajmantri (Prime Minister, alsoBorpatro;Ahom language:Shenglung) who enjoyed additional powers and the service of a thousand additional paiks from the Jakaichuk village.
TheBorbarua and theBorphukan had military and judicial responsibilities, and they were aided by two separate councils (sora) ofPhukans. The Borphukan'ssora sat at Guwahati and the Borbarua'ssora at the capital. Six of them formed the council of theBorbarua with each having his separate duties. The Naubaicha Phukan, who had an allotment of thousand men managed the royal boats, the Bhitarual Phukan, the Na Phukan, the Dihingia Phukan, the Deka Phukan, and the Neog Phukan formed the council of Phukan. TheBorphukan also had a similar council of six subordinate Phukans whom he was bound to consult in all matters of importance. This council included Pani Phukan, who commanded six thousandpaiks, Deka Phukan who commanded four thousandpaiks, the Dihingia Phukan, Nek Phukan and two Chutiya Phukans.
The superintending officers were calledBaruas. The Baruas of whom there were twenty or more included Bhandari Barua or treasurer; the Duliya Barua, who was in charge of the royal palanquins; the Chaudang Barua who superintended executions; Khanikar Barua was the chief artificer; Sonadar Barua was the mint master and chief jeweler; the Bez Barua was the physician to the royal family, Hati Barua, Ghora Barua, etc.
Other officials included twelve Rajkhowas, and a number of Katakis, Kakatis, and Dolais. The Rajkhowas were governors of given territories and commanders of three thousandpaiks. They were the arbitrator who settled local disputes and supervised public works. The Katakis were envoys who dealt with foreign countries and hill tribes. The Kakatis were writers of official documents. The Dolais expounded astrology and determined auspicious time and dates for any important event and undertaking.
Members of the royal families ruled certain areas, and they were calledRaja.
Members of the royal families who occupy lower positions are given regions calledmels, and were calledmeldangia ormelkhowaraja.Meldangia Gohains were princes of an even lesser grade, of which there were two:Majumelia Gohain andSarumelia Gohain.[102]
Royal ladies were given individualmels, and by the time of Rajeshwar Singha, there were twelve of them. The most important of these was theRaidangia mel given to the chief queen.[103]
Forward governors, who were military commanders, ruled and administered forward territories. The officers were usually filled from the families that were eligible for the three great Gohains.
Lesser governors were called Rajkhowas, and some of them were:
The dependent kings or vassals were also calledRaja. Except for the Raja of Rani, all paid an annual tribute. These Rajas were required to meet the needs for resources and paiks when the need arose, as during the time of war. There were in total 15 vassal states.[105]
The other hill states which acknowledged the overlordship and nominal sovereignty of the Ahoms were the states of:
The states ofJaintia andDimasa paid annual tributes to the Ahom king, acknowledging the overlordship and the vassalage of Ahoms. In this connection, mention be made of the termthapita sanchita (established and preserved) which determined their relationship with the Ahoms.[107]
The Ahom kingdom was dependent on thePaik system, a form ofcorvee labor, reorganized in 1608 by Momai Tamuli Barbarua.[108] Every common subject was apaik, and fourpaiks formed agot. At any time of the year, one of thepaiks in thegot rendered direct service to the king, as the others in hisgot tended to his fields. The Paik system was administered by the Paik officials: A Bora was in charge of 20paiks, a Saikia of 100 and a Hazarika of 1000. A Rajkhowa commanded three thousand and a Phukan commanded six thousandpaiks.[108]
Supatphaa became acquainted with the land measurement system of Mughals during the time he was hiding in Kamrup before he succeeded to the throne. As soon as the wars with Mughals were over he issued orders for the introduction of a similar system throughout his dominions. Surveyors were imported from Koch Behar and Bengal for the work. It was commenced inSibsagar and was pushed on vigorously, but it was not completed until after his death.Nagaon was next surveyed, and the settlement which followed was supervised byRudra Singha himself. According to historians, the method of survey included measuring the four sides of each field with anal, or bamboo pole of 12 feet (3.7 m) length and calculating the area, the unit was the "lucha" or 144 square feet (13.4 m2) and 14,400 sq ft (1,340 m2). is one "Bigha". Four 'bigha' makes one 'Pura'. A similar land measurement system is still being followed in modern Assam.
The measurement system helped in the equal distribution of land among the paiks as well as among the nobles and officers. Records of land were maintained under an officer calledDarabdhara Barua. Thus all cultivable and occupied land, except homesteads and jungles, were surveyed and recorded. The paper on which this was recorded is calledperakagaz orperakakat meaning (paper carefully preserved inside of wooden boxes calledpera). As theperakagaz were not durable, copper plates called astamrapatraorphali were issued for important records, particularly of revenue-free lands gifted to religious sites or to Brahamanas.[109]
The Ahom military department consisted ofinfantry,cavalry,elephantry,artillery,espionage andnavy. Land was given to martial paiks (militia) in exchange for their service. The paiks were organised under agot (group of four paiks), and further under akhel (department). The paiks were placed under the command of Paik officers, whose ranks as follows:
| Paik Officer | Number of Paiks |
|---|---|
| Phukan | 6000 |
| Rajkhowa | 3000 |
| Hazarika | 1000 |
| Saikia | 100 |
| Bora | 20 |
Swords, spears, bows, and arrows, guns, matchlocks, cannons were the primary weapons of the war. The soldiers had been trained to stand firm in battle. The cavalry commander wasGhora Barua, and the elephant commander wasHati Barua.[110]
The people of medieval Assam were aware of the use of incendiary weapons. However, firearms were first introduced in the early 16th century. The Ahom troops quickly became experts in the manufacture of various types of guns, small and large, matchlocks, artillery, and large cannon.Kharghariya Phukan was the officer in charge of the manufacture of gunpowder.[110]
The navy was the most important and powerful division of the Ahom forces. The main warships were known as bacharis. This shape was similar to Bengali kosahs, and each could carry 70 to 80 men. They were tough and powerful, and by the end of the period, many of them were armed with guns. The Fathiya-i-ibriya mentions 32,000 ships belonging to the king of Assam at the time ofMir Jumla's invasion of Assam. These were primarily made of chambal wood and were thus light and fast and so difficult to sink. The navy was led by theNaobaicha Phukan andNaosaliya Phukan.[110]
Forts were built in strategic locations to provide armed resistance. The Ahom soldiers were skilled at attacking the enemy at night. On the battlefield, a small group of Ahom soldiers could often outnumber thousands of enemy soldiers. Aside from their numerical strength, the Ahom paiks' physical strength, courage, and endurance were the most important factors in the Ahom military's invincibility.[110]
In civil matters, Hindu laws were generally followed, while the criminal law was characterized by sternness and comparative harshness, where the general principle was that of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, and the culprit was punished with precisely the same injury as that inflicted by him on the complainant. TheBorborua and theBorphukan were the chief judicial authorities in their respective provinces, and trials were conducted before them.[111]
The punishments for crimes were generally harsh, with offenders punished by impaling, grinding between two cylinders, starving to death, slicing of the body into pieces, hoeing from head to foot, etc. Common punishments included the extraction of eyes and kneecaps, the slicing off of noses, beating with sticks, etc.[112]
Subinphaa (1281–1293), the third Ahom king, delineated theSatgharia Ahom ("Ahom of the seven houses") aristocracy: theChaophaa, theBurhagohain and theBorgohain families, and four priestly lineages—theDeodhai, theMohan, theBailung and theChiring Phukan. These lines maintainedexogamous marital relationships. The number of lineages increased in later times as either other lineages were incorporated, or existing lineages divided. The king could belong to only the first family whereas the Burhagohain and the Borgohain only to the second and the third families. Most of the Borphukans belonged to theChutia ethnic group, whereas the Borbaruas belonged to theMorans, Chiring andKhamti groups.[101] Later onNaga,Mising and Nara (Mongkawng) oracles became a part of theBailung group.[113] The extended nobility consisted of the landed aristocracy and the spiritual class that did not pay any form of tax.
Theapaikan chamua was the gentry that was freed from thekhels and paid only money-tax. Thepaikan chamua consisted of artisans, the literati and skilled people that did non-manual work and rendered service as a tax. Thekanri paik rendered manual labor. The lowest were thelicchous,bandi-beti and other serfs and bondsmen. There was some degree of movement between the classes.Momai Tamuli Borborua rose from a bondsman through the ranks to become the firstBorbarua underPratap Singha.
The metropolis at Rangpur contains theTalatal Ghar,Rang Ghar,Gola Ghar and in Garhgoan,Kareng Ghar.[114]
A large number of temple constructions in the late medievalAssam are credited to the Ahom kings. Notable temples from the Ahom period includes–Sivasagar group of temples,Jaysagar group of temples, Gaurisagar group of temples,Rudrasagar temple,Negheriting shiva temple,Rangnath temple,Manikarneswar temple,Dirgheshwari temple,Hatimura temple,Kedar temple,Basistha temple,Sukreswar temple,Umananda temple,Rudreswar temple etc including many others.[115]
Numerous large and small tanks were excavated to necessitate the problem of water shortage and for religious purposes. Their grandeur was enhanced by the construction of temples in their bank. Notable tanks from the Ahom period includes–Sivasagar tank,Jaysagar tank, Gaurisagar tank, Lakshmisagar tank and Vishusagar tank or Rajmao pukhuri etc. The number of other tanks excavated by the Ahom rulers is estimated to be approximately 200.[116]
The culture of music and dance was widespread and popular and received the patronage of royalty, the Ahom kings also held high regard for Mughal music and sent musicians toDelhi to learn it. Certain officers such as 'Gayan Barua' were appointed to promote music.[117]
The royal insignia of the kingdom is known as Ngi-ngao-kham which is a mythical winged lion dragon.[118][119][120]
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)| Ancient Assam |  | |
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26°55′59″N94°44′53″E / 26.93306°N 94.74806°E /26.93306; 94.74806
