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Ahl-i-Hadith orAhl-e-Hadith (Urdu:اہلِ حدیث,people ofhadith) is aSalafi reform movement that emerged inNorth India in the mid-nineteenth century from the teachings ofSayyid Ahmad Shahid,Syed Nazeer Husain and NawabSiddiq Hasan Khan.[1][2][3][4] It is an offshoot of the 19th-century IndianTariqah-i-Muhammadiya movement led byTitumir and tied to the 18th-century traditions ofShah Waliullah Dehlawi and theWahhabi movement.[5] The adherents of the movement described themselves variously as "Muwahideen", "Ahl-us Sunnah wal Jamaah" and as "Ahl e-Hadith."[6]
Initially coterminous with the so-called (Indian) "Wahhabis", the movement emerged as a distinct group around 1864, having claimed the appellation of "Ahl-i Hadith" to highlight its commitment to the body ofḥadīth—statements attributed toMuhammad, validated through chains of transmission—and itspolitical quietism.[7] The movement was noteworthy for its robust opposition to practices associated with the veneration of saints, which they regarded as a breach of the doctrine ofTawḥīd (Islamic monotheism).[8] Its adherents profess to hold the same views as those of the earlyAhl al-Hadith school.[9] They rejecttaqlid (following legal precedent) and favourijtihad (independent legal reasoning) based on the scriptures.[3] Today, the terms "Salafi" and "Ahl-i Hadith" are often used interchangeably, the movement shares doctrinal tendencies with theHanbalischool prevalent in theArabian Peninsula, and many of its members have identified themselves with theZahiri school of thought.[10] Some believe it possesses some notable distinctions from the mainlyArab Salafis.[11][12][13]
Holding considerable influence amongst the urban Islamic intellectual circles of South Asia, theAhl-i Hadith consolidated themselves into the All IndiaAhl-i-Hadith Conference in 1906[14][15] and, inPakistan, formed a political wing in theJamiat Ahle Hadith in 1986.[16] The movement has drawn support and funding fromSaudi Arabia.[17]
ImamShah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703 – 1762 C.E) is considered as the intellectual fore-forefather of theAhl-i-Hadith.[18][19][20] After hisPilgrimage toMecca, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi spent 14 months inMedina, studyingQur'an,Hadith and works of the classical Hanbali theologianIbn Taymiyya (d. 728 A.H/ 1328 C.E) under thehadith scholar Muhammad Tahir al-Kurani, the son ofIbrahim al-Kurani. Upon return to India, he preachedTawhid and a return to theSunnah, and claimedIjtihad just like Ibn Taymiyya.[21] Shah maintained thatIjtihad is essential forMuslim scholars for all ages since cognizance of Divine injunctions related to the novel issues of each era is obligatory. He also opposed various rituals of saint veneration and customs at saint's tombs which he held to be idolatrous.[22] Shah's campaigns againstbid'ah (religious innovations), emphasis onIjtihad as well as his political activities were immensely influenced by Ibn Taymiyya. His precepts for reviving anIslamic Caliphate modelled on theKhulafa al-Rashidun as elucidated in his treatises likeIzalat al-Khifa,Qurrat al-'Aynayn, etc. echoed the doctrines propounded by Ibn Taymiyya during the 14th/7th century.[23]
After the death of his father,Shah 'Abd al-Aziz continued the works of Shah Waliullah. He was aMuhaddith who emphasized the importance ofHadith with students all across the subcontinent. As a teacher, preacher and social religious-reformer, Shah 'Abd al-Aziz was closely monitoring the socio-political developments in the subcontinent.British were gaining ascendancy in India by capturing power inBengal,Bihar andOrissa. In 1799, British defeated theKingdom of Mysore in theFourth Anglo-Mysore War. When the British armies enteredDelhi in 1803, theMughal Empire was turned into aprotectorate ofBritish East India Company, thus gaining political supremacy in the subcontinent. Upon this, Shah 'Abd al-Aziz declared a decisivefatwa declaring India to beDar-al Harb (abode of war). This was the first significantfatwa against colonial rule in the subcontinent that gave an indirect call toSouth AsianMuslims to fight colonial occupation and liberate the country.[24] This decisivefatwa by Shah Waliullah's eldest son and successor, Shah 'Abd al Azeez, calling upon Muslims to strive to restore India back toIslamic rule, would greatly inspire his studentSayyid Ahmed Shahid and motivate him to plan for futureJihad. After a brief period as a mercenary, Sayyid Ahmad would further pursue his religious studies and re-appeared as an eminent religious scholar and a visionary leader, gaining many disciples. He came to be widely identified as the inheritor of Shah Waliullah's mantle and numerousSunni Muslims volunteered to join his cause.[25]
Under these circumstances the call toJihad againstBritish rule began becoming popular amongst the Muslim masses.Shah Ismail Dehlvi, the nephew of Shah 'Abd al-Aziz and grandson of Shah Waliullah, would lead areligious revivalist movement. In addition to being an excellent orator, he was also a soldier and military commander. Shah Muhammad Ishaq, the grandson of Shah 'Abd al-Aziz would continue his religious reform after Abdul Aziz's death in 1823. Maulana Abdul Haie, son-in-law of Shah 'Abd al-Aziz was also a reputed scholar. These three theologians prepared the spadework ofTariqah-i-Muhammadiyya, the reform movement that would be known as the Indian "Wahhabi movement". During his last years, Shah 'Abd al-Aziz would give his cloak to Syed Ahmed Bareilly appointing him as his successor.Sayyid Ahmed would campaign against the corruption of variousSufiorders, and initiate his disciples intoTariqah-i-Muhammadiya ("Muhammadiyya Order"). The disciples in this order were required to make a vow that they will strictly abide bySharia and would not follow anything not proven byQur'an andHadith.[26]
One of the prominent disciples of Sayyid Ahmed was Wilayat Ali Khan, a student ofHajji Abdul Haq ofBenares; popularly known as the "NejdiSheikh". Abdul Haq was an Islamic scholar who spent years studying in the remote Central Arabian Province of Nejd, the seat of theWahhabi movement. Upon his return, he preached many of its militant ideals and had already established Wahhabi doctrines in South Asia before Sayyid Ahmad'sHajj in 1821.[27] 'Abd al-Haqq would later become a member ofTariqah-i Muhammadiya and join Sayyid Ahmad'sHajj toHejaz in 1821 along with his disciple Wilayat Ali. Unlike other members of the group, 'Abd al-Haqq travelled toYemen to study under the theologianMuḥammad b. ʿAlī al-Shawkānī (d. 1834) and would become greatly influential in shaping the teachings ofAhl-i Hadith.[28]: 174 Meanwhile Wilayat Ali Khan, being a disciple of both Sayyid Ahmad and the Najdi Sheikh, emerged as an important leader of Indian "Wahhabi" movement and its military campaigns ofJihad.[27]
In 1821, Syed Ahmad embarked on a journey for Hajj in Hejaz accompanied by Shah Ismail Dehlvi and Maulana Abdul Haie with 400 disciples. They performed Hajj in 1823 (1237 A.H) and stayed in Hejaz for 8 months. Shah Ismail and Abdul Haie authored theArabic book "Sirat e Mustaqim" to callArabs to theirreformative movement. They returned home in 1824. The three scholars then charted a strategic plan to wage Jihad against the colonial occupation across India. Many parts of the subcontinent became recruitment centres for theMujahideen. When hisPathan disciples offered him territory, Syed Ahmed set-up theNorth West Frontier Province as the operations headquarters for the future "Wahhabite" Jihad in 1826 to re-take the subcontinent from the British. However this put theMujahideen into conflict with theSikh empire. In January 1827, Syed Ahmed was elected asImam andAmir-ul-Mu'mineen (commander of faithful) by religious scholars and tribal chiefs. Soon war broke out between Sikhs and "Wahhabi" Mujahideen.[29][30][31][32]
On 24 February 1828, one of the three leaders of Jihad, Maulvi Abdul Haei, the chief advisor to Syed Ahmed died as an old and ailing person. In his letters to Sikh rulerRanjit Singh, Syed Ahmed clarified that he did not seek a confrontation withSikhs, but only their help in defeating the British. Ranjit Singh, for his part, respected Syed Ahmed as a "courageous, bold and determined person". By 1830, many Pathan tribal chiefs rose against the WahhabiMujahideen and committed massacres against the Wahhabi emigrants. Disillusioned by this, Syed Ahmed lost interest in the movement and made plans to migrate to Arabia. However, senior advisors such as Shah Ismail opposed the idea and sought to complete the objectives of the movement, despite the setbacks.[33][34]
On 17 April 1831, Syed Ahmed set out on his last journey forBalakot with the aim to captureKashmir, accompanied by Shah Ismail. A Pashtun chieftain named Zabardast Khan who made a secret deal with the Sikh commanderSher Singh withheld promised reinforcements. On 6 May 1831, an army of 10,000Mujahideen faced a strong force of 12,000 Sikh soldiers led by Sher Singh. On that day Syed Ahmed, Shah Ismail and prominent leaders of the Wahhabi movement fell fighting in the battlefield. Sikh victory at Balakot arose jubilation inLahore. The defeat at Balakot made a devastating blow to the Wahhabi movement.[35]
After the death and defeats of both Sayyid Ahmed Shahid and Shah Ismail Dehlwi; many of his followers continued the Jihad movement across South Asia. Others became the followers of Shah Muhammad Ishaq (1778–1846 C.E), the grandson of Shah 'Abd al-Azeez and head of theMadrasa Rahimiyya in Delhi. Some of the disciples of Shah Muhammad Ishaq would formally establish theAhl-i Hadith movement.[36]
In the mid-nineteenth century, an Islamic religious reform movement was started in Northern India that continued theTariqah-i-Muhammadiyya movement. It rejected everything introduced intoIslam afterQur'an,Sunnah,Hadith and the early eras.[37][38] This was led byNawab Siddiq Hasan Khan ofBhopal (1832–1890) whose father became a Sunni convert under the influence of Shah 'Abd al-Aziz (1746–1824) andSyed Nazir Husain (1805–1902) who was a student of Muhaddith Shah Muhammad Ishaq (1782–1846), the grandson of Shah 'Abd al-Aziz and hisKhalifa (successor). With the aim of restoring Islamic unity and strengthening Muslim faith, they called for a return to original sources of religion,"Qur'an and Hadith" and eradicate what they perceived asbid'ah (innovations),shirk (polytheism), heresies and superstitions.[39]
Siddiq Hasan's father Sayyid Awlad Hasan was a strong supporter ofSayyid Ahmad Shahid and had accompanied him toAfghanistan inKhyber Pakhtunkhwa to participate in his famousJihad movement.[40] Another major source of influence on Khan was the "NajdiSheikh" 'Abd al-Haqq Benarasi who had returned fromYemen and became the first scholar to teach the doctrines of Yemeni theologianAl-Shawkani in South Asia. Benarasi was Khan's Hadith master in Delhi; teaching him doctrines such as rejection ofshirk,bid'ah,Taqlid, etc. and became influential in laying the doctrinal foundations of the laterAhl-i Hadith.[28] Khan also had studied under the tutelage of other notable students of Shawkani such as Nāṣir al-Ḥāzimī, ʿAbd al-Qayyūm Buḍhānawī and the Bhopali scholar Ḥusayn b. Muḥsin al-Yamanī.[28]: 190–191
Syed Nazeer Husain from Delhi and Siddiq Hasan Khan of Bhopal drew primarily on the work of hadith scholars from Yemen in the early years of the movement, reintroducing the field into the Indian subcontinent. Their strong emphasis on education and book publishing has often attracted members of the social elite both in South Asia and overseas.[41] Alongside the Yemeni reformers, the teachings ofShāh Muḥammad Ismāʿīl Dehlvi (1779–1832 C.E) also became highly important inAhl-i Hadith circles. Shah Muhammad's ground-breaking theological works likeTaqwiyat al-īmān (Strengthening of the Faith),al-Ṣirāṭ al-Mustaqīm (The Straight Path),Yak Rūzī (One Dayer), etc. elucidated the core doctrines of theAhl-i Hadith movement. All these works called upon the believers to uphold the principle ofTawhid (montheism), and condemned various practices associated withsaint-venerations, visitations to tombs,Sufi rituals, etc. asshirk (polytheism).[28]: 174–175
Following the teachings of Shah Ismail,Ahl-i Hadith also rejectedTaqlid to works of classicalSunniFiqh (jurisprudence) and believed in direct understanding ofQur'an andHadith. Due to their connections with Shah Ismail and Sayyid Ahmad'sJihad movement,Ahl-i Hadith were considered as "Wahhabi" conspirators by the British administration. Theanti-colonial activism ofAhl-i Hadith religious reformers as well as their sympathies for Jihad made them the primary target more than any otherreform movement. For theBritish imperial statesmen, their endeavours were part of a wider "Wahhabi" conspiracy. Apart from the British, manyHanafite scholars also were critical of Sayyid Ahmad and his followers.[42] Throughout the 19th century,Ahl-i Hadith scholars were persecuted under various pretexts during the "Wahhabi trails" (of 1850s–1870s). Eventually the leaders of the movement sought pragmatic accommodation with theBritish Raj in order to stop the repression campaign against Wahhabis. Upon the petition ofAhl-i-Hadith scholarMuhammad Hussain Batalvi to theBritish Indian Administration, the government of India issued a notification in 1886, stopping the use of the term "Wahhabi" in official correspondence. In a victory to reform movement, the government conceded to referring the community as "Ahl-i Hadith".[43]
University of Paris political scientistAntoine Sfeir has referred to the movement as having an elitist character which perhaps contributes to their status as a minority in South Asia.[44]Folk Islam and Sufism, commonly popular with the poor and working class in the region, are anathema toAhl-i Hadith beliefs and practices. This attitude toward Sufism has brought the movement into conflict with the rivalBarelvi movement even more so than the Barelvis perennial rivals, theDeobandis.[45]
In the 1920s, the Ahl-i Hadith opened a center for their movement inSrinagar. Followers of theHanafi school of law, forming the majority of Muslims inJammu and Kashmir, socially boycotted and physically attackedAhl-i Hadith followers, eventually declaring such followers to beapostates and banning them from praying in mainstream mosques.[46] From the 1930s the group also began to be active in the political realm ofPakistan, withEhsan Elahi Zaheer leading the movement into a full foray in the 1970s, eventually gaining the movement a network of mosques and Islamic schools.[44] Following other South Asian Islamic movements, theAhl-i Hadith now also administer schools and mosques in the English-speaking world. In the modern era, the movement draws both inspiration and financial support fromSaudi Arabia,[17] now being favoured over the rival Deobandi movement as a counterbalance to Iranian influence.[47]
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Its adherents opposeTaqlid. They reject being bound by the four mainstream Islamic jurisprudentialMad'habs, and the fourImams. Hence they are known as ghair muqallidīn (non-conformists). They repudiate the traditions of the schools of jurisprudence and consider it permissible to seek guidance directly fromQur'an and authenticHadith. This set them in opposition to the Sufi sects of the subcontinent with whom they often have arguments, and they disagree with followers of theHanafi school of thought due to jurisprudential differences.[48][9][49] Classical treatises ofHanbali theologian Ahmad ibn Taymiyya constitute one of the most important doctrinal references of theAhl-i Hadith. These works were introduced to them under the influence of prominent Yemeni traditionalist scholarMuhammad al-Shawkani.[50][14]
Ahl-i-Hadith movement continues the reform tradition of Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703–1762) whom the adherents regard as its first modern member. They also draw upon the teachings of his sonShah 'Abd al-Aziz Muhaddith Dehlavi, his followerSyed Ahmed Barelvi, and the YemeniteQadiMuhammad al-Shawkani (whom they regard asShaykh al-Islam[51]). Siddiq Hasan Khan's father studied under Shah Abd al-Aziz and Syed Nazir Husain was a student of the Muhaddith Shah Muhammad Ishaq, a grandson of Shah Waliullah Dehlawi.[39] Due to their reliance on theQur'an andHadith only and their rejection ofQiyas (analogical reasoning) inIslamic law, the modern-dayAhl-i Hadith are often compared to the olderZahiri school ofFiqh (Islamic law),[52][53] with which the Ahl-i Hadith consciously identify themselves.[13]
Shah Ismail Dehlvi's bookTaqwiyat-ul-Iman is viewed as the manifesto of theAhl-i-Hadith movement. In it he emphasised on thepristine monotheism of Islam and condemned what he viewed as heretic un-Islamic customs that violatedTawhid. Such customs included celebration of death anniversary ofAwliyaa (Saints), asking their mercy or invoking Allah's blessing through them.[54][55]Ahl-i Hadith condemned practices such as visiting the Prophet's grave and various customs related to saint veneration fervently, in a tone which rivaled in intensity to that of theArabianMuwahhidun movement.[56]
While their educational programs tend to include a diverse array of Muslim academic texts, few adherents of the movement ascribe themselves to oneschool of Muslimjurisprudence, placing a greater emphasis on personal responsibility to derive judgments and ritual practice.[41] While the movement's figureheads have ascribed to theZahirite legal school, with a great number of them preferring the works of Yemeni scholarMuhammad al-Shawkani, the generality of the movement is described as respecting all Sunni schools of Islamic law while preferring to take directly from the Qur'an,prophetic tradition and'Ijma (consensus) of the early generations of Muslims.[41] While the movement has been compared toSalafist movement in Arab nations and been branded asWahhabist by the opposingBarelwi movement,[44] theAhl-i Hadith remain similar to yet distinct from Salafists.[57]
According to Islamic scholarMuhammad Asadullah al-Ghalib, the aim and objective of theAhl-i Hadith movement is:
"To earn the satisfaction ofAllah by preaching and establishing unmixed Tawheed and by following properly theKitab andSunnah in all spheres of life. The social and political aim of Ahle Hadeeth Movement is to make all out reforms of the society through the reforms ofAqeedah andAmal."[58]
Like otherIslamic reform movements, theAhl-i Hadith are distinguished by certain common features and beliefs. The men tend to have a particular style of untrimmed beard often considered a visual indicator. In regard to ritual acts of'Ibadah (Islamic acts of worship), the movement's practices are noticeably different from theHanafimadh'hab (legal school) which predominates in South Asia; the men hold their hands above the navel when lined up for congregational prayer, raise them to the level of their heads before bowing, and say "Ameen" out loud after the prayer leader.[41]Ahl-i Hadith call for a return to the first principles and for a revival of "the original simplicity and purity tofaith and practices." They are also opposed to foreign customs and beliefs that crept into Muslim societies as well as foreign philosophical thoughts and Sufi mystical concepts such asMa'rifat.[59] The movement also distinguished itself from theWahhabi movement, which followed theHanbali legal school and its rulings, while theAhl-i Hadith adherents considered themselves as following no singlemadh'hab (legal school).[28]: 165–166
Breaking with the dominant Hanafi andSufi customs, they also emphasise the fraternity and equality of all Muslims; such as permittingMuslim women to pray inMasjids, addressing theKhutbah (Friday sermons) to both villagers and city-dwellers in the native languages, makingdivorce procedure easy and accessible to women, rejectingtriple Talaq, authorising marriage contracts between poor and affluent classes of the society, etc. Other key themes include living a pious and disciplined life by working hard; and attainment ofIhsan (spiritual perfection) through virtuous deeds. While the movement became popular amongst the affluent urban classes, it also has considerable sway in the rural regions.[60]
According to Professor Abdul Ali, former chairman and Director of the Department ofIslamic Studies,Aligarh Muslim University:[61][62][63]
"TheAhl-i-Hadith movement was inspired by the school of thought ofShah Wali Allah of Delhi, who in the eighteenth century, imparted renewed emphasis on the study ofHadith, and raised his voice against the principle oftaqlid in legal matters by justifying the principle ofijtihad, which gave Hadith the right of primacy over the rulings of the juristic schools. This particular trend in Shah Wali Allah's thought became the starting point ofAhl-i-Hadith movement... TheAhl-i-Hadith movement which was started in India in the nineteenth century was quite different from that ofWahhabism, because it drew its inspiration not fromMuhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab ofNajd but from his Indian contemporary Shah Waliullah of Delhi. At the same time... both these movements had some elements of religious purification in their rejection oftaqlid and innovation."
TheWahhabi movement was a revivalist movement that emerged in theArabian Peninsula in the 18th century, and sharedreformist,traditionalist heritage ofAhl-i Hadith. During the late 19th century, Wahhabi scholars would establish contacts withAhl-i-Hadith and many Wahhabi students would travel to South Asia to study under theAhl-i-Hadithulama, and later became prominent scholars in the Arabian Wahhabi establishment.[64][65]
Both the Wahhabis andAhl-i-Hadith shared a common creed, opposed Sufi practices such as visiting shrines, seeking aid (istigatha) from dead'Awliya (Islamic saints), etc. Both the movements revived the teachings of the medieval Sunni theologian and jurist, Ibn Taymiyya, whom they considered as "Shaykh al-Islam". With the resources of Muslimprincipality of Bhopal at his disposal,MuhaddithNawab Siddiq Hasan Khan became a strong advocate theAhl-i-Hadith cause in India. Suffering from the instabilities of 19th-century Arabia, many Wahhabiulema would make their way to India and study underAhl-i-Hadith patronage. ProminentSaudi scholars like Hamad ibn 'Atiq would make correspondence with Siddiq Hasan Khan; requesting him to send various classical works, due to scarcity of classical treatises amongst the 19th-century Najdi scholars. He would send his eldest son, Sa'd ibn Atiq, to India to study under Siddiq Hasan Khan as well asSayyid Nazir Hussain for over nine years. Sa'd ibn Atiq would become a major scholarly authority in theThird Saudi State. He was appointed byIbn Saud as theqadi ofRiyadh as well as theImam ofGrand Mosque of Riyad giving him great influence in the educational system. Amongst his students wasAbd al-Aziz Ibn Baz, who was highly influenced by the IndianAhl-i-Hadith. Another son of Sa'd Ibn Atiq as well as other prominent Najdi scholars fromAl Ash-Shaykh would study with the IndianAhl-i-Hadith during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[64][66]
Ahl-i Hadith leaderNawabSīddïq Hasān Khán (1832–1890 C.E/ 1248–1307 A.H) nevertheless strongly objected to the usage of the term "Wahhabi"; viewing it as a restrictive regional term primarily rooted in geography and also considered the term to be politically manipulative. According to him, labelling the exponents ofTawhid as "Wahhabi" was wrong since it symbolised a form of regionalism that went against Islamic universalism. Khan argues that the term has contradicting, unrelated and narrow localised connotations across different parts of the World. Khan pointed out that the term had been turned by theBritish Raj into a political pejorative phrase; abusing its name to castigate its dissidents of being aligned with the movement ofIbn 'Abd-al-Wahhab of Arabia, (with which British empire had fought variouswars) and that the colonial authorities in had applied it to a wide range ofanti-colonialIslamic reform movements.[67][68][69][70] He distanced himself as well as the Indian Muslim public from this label, writing:[71][72]
To call those Indian Muhammadans who do not worship tombs and pirs and prohibit people from unlawful acts by the name Wahabi is entirely false for several reasons: In the first place they do not represent themselves as such, on the contrary they call themselves Sunnis. If there was anything of Wahabism in their creed they would call themselves by that name and should not resent the epithet. Those who worship one God object to being called Wahabis in the Abd al-Wahhab kind of way not only because of his belonging to a different nation and all its politics, but because they consider God as the ruler and protector of the whole world and this [universalist] stance is blunted if they are said to be followers of a territorially rooted Abd al-Wahhab."[73][74]
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In 1931,Ahl-i-Hadith scholar Shaykh Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Dehlawi, founded theDar-ul-Hadith institute, which would later be attached to theIslamic University of Medina. It encouraged the study ofHadith acrossHejaz and paved the way forMuhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani and hisMuhaddith factions in the 1960s. With the support ofSaudi Grand MuftiIbn Baz, culminating in the consolidation of the contemporarySalafi Manhaj. Ibn Baz, who was highly influenced byAhl-i-Hadith, shared the passion for revival ofHadith sciences. After the establishment ofThird Saudi State andoil boom, the Saudi Sheikhs would repay their debts by supportingAhl-i-Hadith through finances as well as mass publications.Mufti Muhammad ibn Ibrahim's teachers also included students ofAhl-i-Hadith scholars and he too made efforts to support the South AsianAhl-i-Hadith cause. After Mufti Muhammad, Ibn Baz as theGrand Mufti of Saudi Arabia would greatly support the movement. ProminentAhl-i-Hadith scholars such as Shaykh Abdul Ghaffar Khan would be appointed to teach in Saudi Universities. His famous students includedSafar al-Hawali andMuqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i. With Saudi patronage, a vastAhl-i-Hadith networks were expanded in South Asia, experiencing a phenomenal increase from 134 in 1988 to 310 in 2000 (131 percent) and currently number around 500. According to Pakistani estimates 34,000 students studied underAhl-i-Hadithmadrassas in 2006 compared to 18,800 in 1996.Ahl-i-Hadith has had remarkable success in converting Muslims from other schools of thought.[75][76]
The earlySalafiyya reformers of theArab World would influence and impart influence onAhl-i-Hadith scholars. The Iraqi Salafi scholarKhayr Al-Din Al-'Alusi (d. 1317 A.H/ 1899 C.E) corresponded withAhl-i-Hadith scholar Siddiq Hassan Khan and praised him as a religious reformer. Influenced byAhl-i-Hadith, Salafi scholars likeSayyīd Rashīd Ridá (d. 1354 A.H/ 1935 C.E) would call for a non-madhab or pre-madhab approach toFiqh (Jurisprudence). 'Abd al-Baqi al-Afghani (d. 1905) who was influenced byAhl-i-Hadith in the subcontinent would also be active thereform movements inSyria. Syrian Islamic scholarMuhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani too would be highly influenced byAhl-i-Hadith and would be known as an excellentMuhaddith. TheSalafiyyaUlema shared with theAhl-i-Hadith, a common interest in opposing various Sufi practices, denounceTaqlid (blind following), reviving correct theology andHadith sciences.[77][78]
Leading proponents of the movement joined forces against the opposition they faced from establishedulama (religious scholars) and in 1906 formed the All IndiaAhl-i-Hadis Conference.[79] TheJamiat Ahl-e-Hadees was represented in theAll India Azad Muslim Conference, whichopposed the partition of India.[80] One member organization of the All India Ahl-i-Hadis Conference is theAnjuman-i-Hadith, formed by students ofSayyid Miyan Nadhir Husain and divided intoBengal andAssam wings. After the 1947 separation of India and Pakistan, the PakistaniAhle-Hadith center was based in and aroundKarachi.[81]
In 1930Ahl-i Hadith was founded as a small political party in India.[44] In Pakistan, the movement formed a political party,Jamiat Ahle Hadith, which unlike similar Islamic groups opposed government involvement in affairs ofsharia law.[82] Their leader,Ehsan Elahi Zaheer, was assassinated in 1987. TheAhl-i Hadith opposes Shi'i doctrines.[37]
Millions of dollars in Saudi funding has also been given into Indian and Pakistani Ahle Hadith madrassas, and educational institutions.[48]
During the rule of theBritish Raj, no accurate census was ever taken of the movement's exact number of followers.[45] The group itself claims 22 million followers in India (out of a population of 1396 million) and 10 million in Pakistan (out of a population of 227 million),[83] as well 25 millions in Bangladesh with strongholds in 40 districts of the country.[84]
In the United Kingdom, the Ahl-i Hadith movement maintains 42 centers and boasts a membership which was estimated at 5,000 during the 1990s and 9,000 during the 2000s.[85] Although the movement has been present in the UK since the 1960s, it has not been the subject of extensive academic research and sources on the movement are extremely limited and rare.[85]
The Ahl-i Hadith is opposed to practices associated with SufiAwliyaa (Saints). In Pakistan, although many Salafi groups shun violence, some Ahl-i Hadith organizations advocate militant actions. The Ahl-i Hadith militant organizations such asLashkar-e-Taiba, an armed wing ofMarkaz Dawah wal Irshad (MDI), have targeted Indian security forces as well as Barelvis, Shias and Ahmadis. Another organisation, Tehreek e-Mujahideen (an armed Wing ofMarkazi Jamiat Ahle Hadith), has targeted Indian security forces in the contested state ofKashmir. During theAfghan Jihad of 1980s, the Pakistani state encouraged madrassas to fight the Soviet forces, militarizing many organizations including Salafi/Ahle Hadith groups. In sharp contrast, Indian Salafists have been regarded as being "peaceful" and "non-violent."[48] While the organization Lashkar-e-Taiba has recruited followers of the Ahl-i Hadith movement in the past, the organization's views on jihad alienate the mainstream adherents of the Ahl-i Hadith movement.[86] Lashkar e-Taiba is considered responsible for various attacks on Indian soil including the2008 Mumbai attacks that killed more than 160 people.[48]
The Indian Ahle Hadith movement has largely remained apolitical, focusing primarily on religious issues and also encourage participation in the democratic process.[48]
When theDeobandiTaliban first came to power inAfghanistan in the 1990s, they had suppressed Salafist trends. However, after thepost-9/11US Invasion of Afghanistan, Taliban were forced to ally with Salafists. Many Salafist footsoldiers andAhl-i Hadith organisations joined theTaliban insurgency (2001–2021) under the Afghan Taliban's command.[87] After Taliban victory in theWar in Afghanistan andRestoration of the Islamic Emirate, hundreds ofAhl-i Hadithulema would gather to announce theirBay'ah (pledge of allegiance) to theIslamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Number ofAhl-i Hadith clerics and their representatives held gatherings across various provinces of Afghanistan to re-affirm their backing of the Taliban and officially declare their support to theTaliban crackdown on IS-K.[88]
The Jama'at Ahl-e Hadith, an elitist politico religious movement aimed at islah (reform), has its origins in the early 1870s. Like other Sunni reform movements, it claims to continue the tradition of Shah Waliullah Dehlavi (1703–1762) whom it regards as the first modern Ahl-e Hadith member and draws on ideas of Syed Ahmed Barelvi (Ahmed Shaheed) (1786–1831), follower of Shah Abdul Aziz (1746–1824), the son of Shah Waliullah, and the Yemenite qadi Mohammad ibn Ali al Shawkani (1775–1839).
"They called themselves variously as Muwahideen (that is, unitarians, the term preferred by Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan), and Ahl e-Ḥadīth (that is, the Followers of the Prophet's Words, the term preferred by.. Syed Nazir Hussain).
Ahl-i-Hadith [...] consciously identified themselves with Zahiri doctrine.
Ahl-i Hadith were those who accepted the teachings of Shah Ismail of Delhi by rejecting unthinking deference to the Sunni jurisprudential tradition and scholarly authority in avor of personal readings and understanding of the Quran and hadith... the Ahl-i Hadith religious position had its origins in the teachings of Shah Wali Ullah and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi... A large number of scholars (including myself) have historicized the Ahl-i Hadith interventions... Barbara Metcalf considers them the intellectual descendants of Shah Wali Ullah, counterparts in this sense, to the Deobandis.
The Ahl-i Hadith trace their intellectual roots back to Shah Wali Allah (1703–1762)..
With the British takeover of the Mughal capital of Delhi in 1803.. Shah Waliullah s eldest son and successor, Shah Abdul Azziz, issued a fatwa, or religious judgment, that Delhi had been enslaved by kufr (paganism). He declared Hindustan to be a dar al-harb or "domain of enmity" and that it was now incumbent on all Muslims to strive to restore India to Islam. This was no more than a gesture, but it set a goal that his student Syed Ahmad did not forget.
Shah Waliullah's eldest son and successor, Shah Abdul Azziz, issued a fatwa.. that Delhi had been enslaved by kufr (paganism). He declared Hindustan to be a dar al-harb or "domain of enmity" and that it was now incumbent on all Muslims to strive to restore India to Islam. This was no more than a gesture, but it set a goal that his student Syed Ahmad did not forget. After a murky period as a mercenary, Syed Ahmad returned to his religious studies, to reemerge in his early thirties as a visionary revivalist and preacher. He very soon acquired disciples... Many Sunnis now saw him as the inheritor of the mantle of the Shah Waliullah and hundreds flocked to join his cause..
The ill-equipped 1000 Mujahideen were no match to the well-equipped 12,000 strong force of Sikh gunmen (Banduqchis).. The Government of India also sent its message of congratulations to Maharaja Ranjit Singh, through its political agent
Ahl-i Hadith were those who accepted the teachings of Shah Ismail of Delhi by rejecting unthinking deference to the Sunni jurisprudential tradition and scholarly authority in avor of personal readings and understanding of the Quran and hadith... A large number of scholars (including myself) have historicized the Ahl-i Hadith interventions. The earliest British observers termed them Wahhabi conspirators, inspired by visits to Mecca and led by Sayyid Ahmad of Rai Bareily to lead an anti-Sikh jihad... Religious reformist impulses drove a number of teaching and learning movements across colonial north India in the nineteenth century but few, if any, provoked the ire of the colonial state in the manner that the Ahl-i Hadith did. Sayyid Ahmad's jihad produced suspicion and hostility among European statesmen who believed that hostile anti-colonial sentiments motivated this "Wahhabi" conspiracy. The Hanafi 'ulama accused Sayyid Ahmad, Shah Ismail, and their supporters of misleading common people into making financial contributions in their support.
Second, the group is opposed to the practice of associating with Sufi saints...
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)In political, as well as religious matters, any Muslim who challenges the status quo is at risk of being labeled a Wahhabi. This is how the KGB and its post-Soviet successors have used the term.
The use of the term to label all distasteful opponents has become so routine in post–Soviet discourse that Feliks Kulov, then Minister for National Security in Kyrgyzstan, could speak in 1997 of "foreign Wahhabi emissaries, from Iran in particular". People accused of being "Wahhabis" are routinely charged with treason and subversion against the state.
It was ... not an easy task for theAhl-i-Hadis preachers to go against the powerful sunniulema ... They encountered frequent opposition from the latter ... In order to consolidate their efforts, the leading members of the movement decided to form an all-India organization, called the All IndiaAhl-i-Hadis Conference in 1906, in Lucknow, India.