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Business and personal
45th and 47th President of the United States Tenure
Shutdowns Speeches
Opinion polls Legal affairs
Impeachments   | ||
At 79 years old,Donald Trump, the 47thpresident of the United States since 2025 and the 45th from 2017 to 2021, is the oldest person in American history to be inaugurated as president. He became the oldest presidential nominee of a major party in July 2024, five weeks after his 78th birthday.[2][3] Should he serve as president until August 15, 2028, he would be the oldest sitting president in American history. On January 20, 2029, the end of his second term, he would be 82 years, seven months, and six days old.[2][4][5][6]
Since the early days of Trump's2016 presidential campaign, his physical and mentalhealth have been debated. Trump was 70 years old when he first took office, surpassingRonald Reagan as theoldest person to assume the presidency.[7] Trump's age, weight, lifestyle, and history ofheart disease raised questions about his physical health.[2] Somepsychiatrists and reporters have speculated that Trump may havemental health impairments, such asdementia (which runs in his family) ornarcissistic personality disorder.[8][9] Such claims have prompted discussion about ethics and applicability of theGoldwater rule, which prohibits mental health professionals from publicly diagnosing or discussing the diagnosis of public figures without their consent and direct examination.[10] Public opinion polling from July 2024 indicated an increase in the percentage of Americans concerned about his fitness for a second term.[1][11]
During the 2024 election campaign, some critics raised concerns regarding former president Trump's transparency about his medical records and overall health, noting that he had not publicly released a full medical report since 2015.[4][12][2] Critics noted that his opponent,Kamala Harris, had released her records, and that such disclosures are a common practice among presidential candidates.[13][14][15] On April 13, 2025, three months afterTrump's second inauguration, theWhite House released the results of hisphysical examination andhis cognitive assessment; it concluded that Trump was in "excellent health" and "fully fit" to serve as commander-in-chief.[16]
Coverage of Trump's mental acuity has generated discussion of whether the media has been "sanewashing" Trump by selecting more coherent clips or quotes from his speeches that give a false impression of mental acuity without balancing that coverage by also focusing on the parts of his speeches that might raise concerns about his mental fitness to be President.[17][18][19][20]
As of 2018[update], Trump doesnot drink alcohol;[21] this decision arose in part from watching his older brotherFred Jr. suffer from alcoholism that contributed to his early death in 1981.[22][23] He also said that he has never smoked cigarettes or consumed drugs, includingmarijuana.[24]
In December 2015, Trump's personal physician,Harold Bornstein, released a letter praising Trump for "extraordinary physical strength and stamina". The letter asserted that Trump would be "the healthiest individual ever elected to the presidency" and said that a recent medical exam yielded "only positive results".[25] Before Bornstein's death in 2021, he told CNN that Trump had dictated the entire letter.[2][26] The language used was in Trump's style and not typical of a medical doctor; in particular, the American journalistKurt Eichenwald noted thatpositive test results do not necessarily mean a favorable outcome for the patient.[27] A follow-up medical report by Bornstein claimed that Trump's blood pressure, liver and thyroid functions were within the normal range, and that he takes astatin. At 6 feet 3 inches (1.90 m) and 236 pounds (107 kg), Trump'sbody mass index of 29.5 registered on the higher end ofoverweight BMIs.[28][29][30]
During the2016 Republican Party presidential primaries, presidential candidate and primary opponentJeb Bush speculated in February 2016 that Trump had mental health issues, stating, "I'm not a psychiatrist or a psychologist, but the guy needs therapy."[31][32]
The "Duty to Warn" movement was founded by medical professionals concerned about Trump's cognitive health in his first year in office.[33]
In 2016 and 2017, a number of psychiatrists andclinical psychologists faced criticism for violating the Goldwater rule; despite having never examined him, they maintained thatDonald Trump displayed "an assortment ofpersonality problems, includinggrandiosity, a lack ofempathy, and 'malignant narcissism'", and that he had a "dangerous mental illness".[34][35][36]
In 2017, psychologistJohn Gartner collected more than 41,000 signatures of mental health professionals on a petition, directed to then-Senate Minority LeaderChuck Schumer.[37][38] The petition asserted that Trump suffered from a serious mental illness and was "psychologically incapable of competently discharging the duties" of the presidency. Gartner asserted that Trump's mental handicaps are a mix ofnarcissism,paranoia,sociopathy, andsadism.[37]
In February 2017, psychiatristAllen Frances wrote a letter to the editor ofThe New York Times regarding Trump and narcissistic personality disorder. Frances said, "I wrote the criteria that define this disorder, and Mr. Trump doesn't meet them."[39][40] According to the American Psychiatric Association, "saying that a person does not have an illness is also a professional opinion."[41]
On April 14, 2017, RepresentativesJamie Raskin andEarl Blumenauer introduced the Oversight Commission on Presidential Capacity Act.[42] The bill, if passed, would have allowed Congress, by aconcurrent resolution, to require an 11-member commission to conduct an examination of the president and report the findings.[43][44]
In April 2017, forensic psychiatristBandy X. Lee hosted a meeting at Yale University medical school regarding the ethics of discussing Trump's mental health.[45][46] In October 2017, Lee publishedThe Dangerous Case of Donald Trump, containing essays from 27 psychologists, psychiatrists, and mental health professionals on the "clear and present danger" that Trump's mental health poses to the "nation and individual well being". They argued that the president's issues affected the mental health of the United States population,[47] and that he placed the country at grave risk of war because of his pathological traits.[48] They asserted that Trump exhibited narcissistic personality disorder, 'extreme presenthedonism' and bullying.[9]Carlos Lozada, writing forThe Washington Post, considered these conclusions "compelling", but also noted that the book contributors were writing from their own political perspectives and that other mental health professionals held differing views.[9] Lee and others contended that Trump's presidency represented an emergency allowing, or even requiring, psychiatrists to make an exception to the APA'sGoldwater rule, which holds that it is unethical for members of the APA to give professional opinions about public figures without having examined them in person and without having obtained theirconsent.[49][48] Proponents of such an exception have asserted that there isprecedent in allowing psychiatrists to speak out when someone presents aclear and present danger.[9]
In September 2017, Jeanne Suk Gerson wrote inThe New Yorker, "A strange consensus does appear to be forming around Trump's mental state", including Democrats and Republicans who doubt Trump's fitness for office.[48]
Also in September 2017, journalistBill Moyers interviewed psychiatristRobert Jay Lifton and said that Trump "makes increasingly bizarre statements that are contradicted by irrefutable evidence to the contrary". Lifton replied, "He doesn't have clear contact with reality, though I'm not sure it qualifies as abona fidedelusion." As an example, Lifton said, when Trump claimed thatformer president Barack Obama was born in Kenya, "he was manipulating that lie as well as undoubtedly believing it in part."[50]
In September 2017, psychiatristJeffrey A. Lieberman published an article commenting on Donald Trump's mental health. He said that, in accordance with theGoldwater rule, no diagnosis should be made of public figures, but also stated that assessing the president's fitness to government should not be left to politicians alone. He arrived at a diagnosis of "incipient dementia",[51] but faced no sanctions from the APA.[52]
In 2018, Trump dismissed then-prevalent questions regarding his mental health, stating that he is a "very stable genius".[53] As evidence of his mental capacities, he pointed to his business success, his victory over Republican competitors, and his election to the presidency againstHillary Clinton.[54] Trump has also disputed claims he couldn't remember the name of a fallen soldier while talking to the widow, stating he has "one of the great memories of all time".[55]
In January 2018, Trump was examined by White House physicianRonny Jackson, who stated that he was in excellent health, although his weight and cholesterol level were higher than recommended,[21] and that his cardiac assessment revealed no medical issues.[56] Several independent cardiologists commented that Trump's weight, lifestyle andLDL cholesterol ought to have raised serious concerns about his cardiac health.[57] Trump's 2018coronary CT calcium scan score indicates he has a form of heart disease calledcoronary artery disease, which is common for white males at his age.[58]
| Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) tweeted: |
North Korean Leader Kim Jong Un just stated that the "Nuclear Button is on his desk at all times". Will someone from his depleted and food starved regime please inform him that I too have a Nuclear Button, but it is a much bigger & more powerful one than his, and my Button works!
January 3, 2018[59]
In January 2018, after North Korea's leaderKim Jong Un and Trump publicly exchanged claims about their respective "nuclear buttons",Richard Painter, a former adviser to PresidentGeorge W. Bush, deemed Trump "psychologically unfit" and supported transferring his powers to Vice PresidentMike Pence under the25th Amendment.[53] In April 2018,Vanity Fair reported that Trump's advisers "worry about his mental health" when he is outside the controls available in the White House environment.[60]
In response to speculation about his cognitive abilities, Trump voluntarily took theMontreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) as part of his January 2018 health checkup. He reported receiving a score of 30/30, indicating a normal level of cognitive function, although the results have not been released.[2] Critics have contended that the MoCA test is too basic to diagnose the problems asserted.[61][62] Trump used the phrase "Person, woman, man, camera, TV" several times during a July 2020Fox News interview withMarc Siegel, a professor of medicine atNew York University,[63][64] while describing part of the 2018 MoCA test and praising his own performance on it.[65] Trump has not publicly revealed the results of any subsequent cognitive tests but, as late as 2024, continued to praise his performance in the 2018 cognitive test.[66]Ziad Nasreddine, theneurologist who created the test, noted that 2018 results would be too outdated to be relevant in 2024.[2]
An academic consensus across multiple studies was made in 2019, characterizing Trump as having "very highextraversion, very lowagreeableness,conscientiousness, andemotional stability, and sky-highnarcissism".[67]
In 2019, amid continued speculation, theAmerican Psychiatric Association andAlzheimer's Society requested that professionals other than Trump's doctors adhere to the Goldwater Rule and refrain from giving armchair diagnoses of Trump.[68][69] A growing number of individuals in academia have continued to call for a relaxation of the Goldwater rule.[67]
In February 2019, Trump was examined by White House physicianSean Conley. Conley stated Trump was in "very good health overall", although Trump was now slightly clinicallyobese, at 243 pounds (110 kg) with a BMI of 30.4.[70]
In a July 4, 2019, speech, Trump said that during theAmerican Revolutionary War, theContinental Army "took over the airports" from the British (airplanes were not invented until 1903, 120 years after the war ended).[71]
Clinical psychologistMary L. Trump, who is Trump's niece, published a book in 2020 identifying the disorders she believed him to have.[4][72]
Trump appeared unsteady while walking down a ramp at theUnited States Air Force Academy on June 15, 2020. He also had difficulty raising a glass of water to his mouth. These episodes raised questions about his health.[73]
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On September 26, 2020, an event was held in theWhite House Rose Garden announcingAmy Coney Barrett's nomination to the Supreme Court following thedeath of Ruth Bader Ginsburg.[74] According to a 2021 book by Trump'sChief of StaffMark Meadows, hours after the ceremony, Trump tested positive for COVID-19, although a subsequent test returned negative. Meadows recalled that Trump looked "a little tired" and was suspected of having a "slight cold".[75]
Trump later traveled in Air Force One to a rally at theHarrisburg International Airport in Pennsylvania, which was attended by thousands.[76] After Trump's diagnosis was made public, Pennsylvania health officials advised attendees to participate in the state's contact tracing program.[77]
After returning from Bedminster, Trump received a positive test result[78] on a rapid test and was waiting to get results of aPCR test when he did a live phone interview onHannity.[79] On October 2, 2020, Trump tweeted that he and his wifeMelania Trump had both tested positive forCOVID-19,[79] part of a White House outbreak.[80][81] Later that day,Trump was hospitalized atWalter Reed National Military Medical Center,[82] reportedly due to fever and labored breathing. He was treated with antivirals, an experimental antibody drug (REGN-COV2[83]), and a steroid. He returned to the White House on October 5, still infectious and unwell.[80][84] In 2021, it was revealed that his condition had been far more serious than he had previously indicated; he had dangerously low blood oxygen levels, a high fever, and lung infiltrates, indicating a severe case of COVID-19.[84]
In 2022,MSNBC described Trump as "notoriously secretive about sharing his health records with the public" and "deliberately misleading and even dishonest about his health".[12]
In an incident in October 2023, Trump referred to Hungarian prime ministerViktor Orbán as "the leader of Turkey", and said that Orbán shares a border with Russia, which neither Turkey nor Hungary does.[85]
During his 2024 campaign, polls generally showed that a majority of Americans believed that Trump was too old to serve as president.[4] A February 2024 Ipsos poll finding that Joe Biden's age and health were major or moderate concerns for 86% of voters also found that 59% similarly thought Trump was too old to hold the office.[11]
During the course of the 2024 primary campaign, Trump made several gaffes, including confusingNikki Haley forNancy Pelosi, claiming he was running againstBarack Obama (the Democratic candidate at the time was Joe Biden), and fearing the nation may enter World War II.[86]
A shift in Trump's speeches by 2024 towards shorter sentences, more tangents, more repetition, moreall-or-nothing thinking and more confusion of words and phrases could indicate cognitive decline.[87][8][88][2] Basil Smikle of Columbia University argued in January 2024 that one reason Trump has not seen as much of the age criticism as Biden is that his rallies seem loud and vibrant, whereas Biden has a more old-school approach to politics.[33]
In January 2024, Dr.Jay Olshansky gave Donald Trump less than a 75% chance of living through a second term based on publicly available information about his health.[89][90] Also in January 2024, red spots or sores were spotted on Donald Trump's hands.[91][92]
On June 14, 2024, Trump said that his longtime acquaintanceJoan Rivers had told him that she had voted for him in the 2016 election, although Rivers had died in September 2014.[93]
A few days later, on June 16, 2024, while praising his own performance on a cognitive test administered in 2018, Trump "confused the name of his former White House physician" who had administered the test.[66]
A July 2024 poll, taken shortly after the first presidential debate, found that 60% of voters saw Trump as too old for a second term.[1] This represented a steady and constant increase in voters polled by this pollster sharing this concern, and paralleled the progression of the larger number of voters who had the same concern about Biden.[1]
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On July 13, 2024, Trump survivedan assassination attempt while addressing a campaign rally nearButler, Pennsylvania.[94] Trump was shot at[95] byThomas Matthew Crooks, a 20-year-old man fromBethel Park, Pennsylvania,[96][97] who fired eight rounds with anAR-15–style rifle from the roof of a building located approximately 400 feet (120 meters) from the stage.
According to the FBI, Trump was hit by a bullet,[98] and injured in his upper right ear.[99] He raised a hand to his ear before dropping down on his podium behind thelectern for cover.[100][101][102][103] Secret Service agents lunged toward Trump and shielded him. After the assailant was declared "down", agents helped Trump get up. Blood was visible on his ear and face. He asked the Secret Service agents to let him get his shoes.[104] According to Trump, the agents "hit me so hard that my shoes fell off, and my shoes are tight."[105] As of October 12, 2024, none of the medical records pertaining to his wounds had been released.[106]
In July 2024, psychologist Simon McCarthy-Jones ofTrinity College Dublin said inThe Conversation that "the potential effect of the attempted assassination of Trump upon Trump's mental health – whether negligible, negative or positive – cannot be ignored". McCarthy-Jones stated that Trump being anextrovert might improve his ability to deal with the psychological impact of the event. However, he also asserted that "other personality traits, including low agreeableness, low conscientiousness and low emotional stability, also attributed to Trump, are associated with greater levels ofPTSD", as are "high levels of narcissism", which can also "cause people to react to even limited threats with aggression".[107] On July 22, 2024, theWashington Post reported interviews with medical experts who believed Trump likely has an elevated genetic risk of dementia.[2] NephewFred Trump III said that he sees signs of the dementia that he saw in Trump's father,Fred Trump Sr.,[8] who was diagnosed withAlzheimer's disease in October 1991, at the age of 86, eight years before he died.[8]
In August 2024, Gabriel Sherman reported inVanity Fair suggestions that Trump was in fact "experiencingtrauma from hisnear-death experience"; a campaign insider reportedly claimed that Trump was "watching that seven-second clip of how close he was to getting shot right in the head – over and over and over again".[108]
An August 2024Morning Consult poll found that the number of respondents who thought Trump was too old to run jumped by seven percent, to 51%, from their previous poll once Trump's opponent changed fromJoe Biden toKamala Harris, and the number of respondents who thought Trump was in good health correspondingly fell by six percent.[109][110] The poll further reported that nearly 80% of respondents "were unsure he'd be up for serving a full second term".[109] AMarquette University poll released the same day reported that 57% of respondents felt that Trump was too old.[88]
In September 2024, Trump said the audience "went crazy" for him at the presidential debate the preceding week, although the debate had no audience.[111][4]
On October 6, 2024,The New York Times reported that Trump had maintained a far less active campaign schedule in 2024 than he did in 2016; the report added that Trump had held only 61 rallies to that point in 2024 compared with 283 through all of 2016.In this same report, they analyzed Trump's speeches, writing, "with the passage of time, the 78-year-old former president's speeches have grown darker, harsher, longer, angrier, less focused, more profane and increasingly fixated on the past, according to a review of his public appearances over the years." The paper commented that Trump has lately seemed "confused, forgetful, incoherent or disconnected from reality" but that it does not get covered much because it is so common. It highlighted an average rally length of 82 minutes compared with 45 minutes in 2016, and a 13% increase in use of all-or-nothing terms such as "always" and "never". It also found 32% more negative words than positive words compared with 21% in 2016, and a 69% increase in swear words. It cited experts who considered this increase intangential speech andbehavioral disinhibition the potential result of advancing age and cognitive decline.[4]
As of October 12, 2024, Trump had declined to release health information going back to 2015 when he first started running for president, despite a promise he made in August 2024 to release records from a recent examination.[13][14] Releasing detailed medical reports is typical of presidential candidates.[15]
Between December 2024 and March 2025, bruises were spotted on multiple occasions on Trump's hands, which generated speculation about his health.[112][113][114]
On April 13, 2025, three months afterTrump's second inauguration, theWhite House released the results of hisphysical examination conducted atWalter Reed National Military Medical Center byWhite House Physician Dr.Sean Barbabella.[115][116] The neurological exam included theMontreal Cognitive Assessment test (MoCA).[115] The report revealed that Trump had at one time hadcataract surgery. His reported height was 6 feet 3 inches (1.90 m) and his weight was 224 pounds (102 kg). It mentioned scarring on his right ear from a bullet wound and his "frequent victories ingolf events".[117]
In July 2025,Karoline Leavitt, theWhite House press secretary, stated that Trump had been diagnosed withchronic venous insufficiency. Trump's physician, Dr. Barbabella, wrote in a statement that bruising on Trump's right hand was attributed to his use ofaspirin and frequent hand-shaking.[118] It was later noted, however, that vascular tests confirmed that Trump in fact had swelling in his legs at the time of his diagnosis.[119] Large bruises continued to appear on Trump's hands in August 2025.
On August 27, 2025, Vice PresidentJD Vance stated that he was ready to become president; this led to speculation that Trump was seriously ill or dead.[120][121][122][123] That day, he was seen leaving for golf,[124][125] but a photo which Trump shared of himself on August 31 was determined to have potentially been taken on August 23, fueling further speculation of continuing health concerns.[126][127][128] Increased discussion about his mental health occurred in August.[129] A photograph of Trump leaving the White House on September 1 confirmed he was still alive, but led to more speculation about his health due to seeming changes in his appearance.[130] Theories alleging that Trump suffered an ischemicstroke grew following the photos' release; Trump disputed suggestions that he suffered ill health, asserting that he "never felt better in [his] life" in an all-capsTruth Social post.[131] On September 11, during a9/11 commemoration atthe Pentagon, the right side of Trump's face was said to droop down heavily, once again sparking concerns of a stroke.[132]
We have a great group of people, whichthey don't. They haveJasmine Crockett — a low IQ person. They have, uh...AOC is low IQ. You give her an IQ test... have her pass the exams I decided to take when I was at Walter Reed. I took... Those are very hard, uh... They're really aptitude test, I guess, in a certain way, but they're cognitive tests. Let AOC go against Trump. Let Jasmine go against Trump. I don't think Jasmine... The first couple questions are easy — atiger, anelephant, agiraffe, you know.[a] When you get up to five or six, and then when you get up to ten, and twenty, and twenty-five — they couldn't come close to answering any of those questions."
On October 10, Trump received another visit to Walter Reed. Leavitt described the visit as a "routine yearly checkup", despite it being Trump's second at the facility in a six-month-period.[135][136] Dr. Barbabella did not elaborate on the imaging or "preventive assessments" that he performed, but claimed added that Trump's laboratory results were "exceptional," and that his cardiac age is "approximately 14 years younger than his chronological age."[137]
On October 27, Trump told reporters that he had undergone an undisclosedMRI scan during a previous visit to Walter Reed, which, despite his claim that it gave "some of the best reports for the age" and "some of the best reports they've ever seen", led to further speculation about his health due to the undisclosed nature of why he had the procedure done.[138] Trump also bragged about his taking of the MoCA test, again misidentifying thescreening assessment for detectingcognitive impairment as a "very hard [...] IQ test" and claiming that younger Democratic political opponents do not have the intelligence to pass it.[137][139] Whether a third MoCA test was conducted during the October visit or if Trump was referring to his April 2025 and/or January 2018 assessments was not clarified.[137]
On October 28, new concerns about Trump's mental state emerged when a video emerged of him wandering off while walking alongsideSanae Takaichi, the first female Prime Minister of Japan, while atAkasaka Palace inTokyo, Japan.[140]
On November 2,The Guardian alleged that "the first signs of the battle over Trump’s succession" were now showing, withSimon Tisdall even stating Trump's Vice President J.D. Vance will be "President JD Vance" by the time of the 2028 U.S. Presidential election, describing "President JD Vance or Marco Rubio" as the current frontrunners to run for the Republican nomination in 2028.[141]
'notoriously secretive about sharing his health records with the public...deliberately misleading and even dishonest about his health'
[T]here are a few hard and fast principles that he himself lives by: no drugs, no cigarettes and no alcohol. Trump's abstinence from alcohol was largely shaped by the death of his brother, Fred Jr., from alcoholism in 1981.
WATTERS: "Have you ever smoked weed?" TRUMP: "No, I have not. I have not. I would tell you 100 percent because everyone else seems to admit it nowadays, so I would actually tell you. This is almost like, it's almost like 'Hey, it's a sign'. No, I have never. I have never smoked a cigarette, either."
Across different academic studies, a consensus seems to emerge regarding the 'off the charts' personality of Donald Trump, which is often characterized by very high extraversion, very low agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability, and sky-high narcissism.
Dr Olshansky stated on January 7th, in an article in the Hill, a Washington-based newspaper, that, 'Today his [Mr Biden's] chances of surviving through a second term in office are close to 75% (about 10% better survival than for an average man his age). Similar, although slightly less favourable survival prospects are present for Trump.'
Reports also were fueled by an interview Wednesday with USA Today in which Vice President JD Vance said that although the 79-year-old president was in good health, he was prepared to take over the role of commander in chief should a 'terrible tragedy' strike.
'Yes, terrible tragedies happen,' Vance said to USA Today. 'But I feel very confident the president of the United States is in good shape, is going to serve out the remainder of his term and do great things for the American people. And if, God forbid, there's a terrible tragedy, I can't think of better on-the-job training than what I've gotten over the last 200 days.'
President Donald Trump on Saturday was photographed leaving for his golf course in Virginia, dispelling rumors spread on social media that Trump had died in recent days after not being seen publicly.
[Updated Sep 01, 2025 at 10:46 AM EDT]
(...) If you aren't comfortable with labeling this as dementia, that's fine. But there is no question that the president — the man tasked with making critical life and death decisions for both the country and the world — is struggling with mathematical concepts, has vivid "memories" that are not rooted in reality and has an increasingly foggy grasp of past events that did happen. That's not a medical diagnosis. These are facts we can see for ourselves and we all know, even those of us who voted for Trump three times, that this can't be allowed to continue. (...)
(...) The abrupt changes in conversation are an example of Trump "digressing without thinking – he'll just switch topics without self-regulation, without having a coherent narrative", said Harry Segal, a senior lecturer in the psychology department at Cornell University and in the psychiatry department at Weill Cornell Medicine. (...) The White House removed official transcripts of Trump's remarks from its website in May, claiming it was part of an effort to "maintain consistency". It is worth reading Trump's remarks in full, however, to get a sense of how the president speaks on a day-to-day basis. (...)
How should journalists do their jobs when there are suspicions or signs that presidents and other elected officials are losing it? That's what UC Berkeley journalism professor Edward Wasserman focuses on in his Open Forum on Thursday.
For starters, on two occasions, Trump told reporters he will be meeting later this week with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Russia. The meeting will be held in Alaska.
Two psychologists [Dr. Harry Segal and Dr. John Gartner] have warned that Trump shows signs of dementia, specifically frontotemporal dementia, linked to deteriorating psychomotor functioning.
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