The name of the language comes directly from the Dutch wordAfrikaansch (now spelledAfrikaans)[n 4] meaning 'African'.[12] It was previously referred to as 'Cape Dutch' (Kaap-Hollands orKaap-Nederlands), a term also used to refer to theearly Cape settlers collectively, or the derogatory 'kitchen Dutch' (kombuistaal) from its use by slaves of colonial settlers "in the kitchen".
The Afrikaans language arose in theDutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from EuropeanDutch dialects, during the course of the 18th century.[13][14] As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the early-20th century, pre-standardized Afrikaans was still viewed by the many in Southern Africa as 'kitchen Dutch' (Afrikaans:kombuistaal), lacking the prestige accorded an officially recognised language like Dutch and English, at that time. In the 19th century Boer republics, proto-Afrikaans was not yet widely seen by the Afrikaner population itself, nor by its leaders, as a separate language to standard Dutch. Dutch was expressly the sole and only legally recognised language at that time. Other early epithets, in Southern Africa, setting apartKaaps Hollands ('Cape Dutch', i.e. Proto-Afrikaans) as putatively beneath official Dutch language standards includedgeradbraakt,gebroken andonbeschaafd Hollands ('mutilated, broken, or uncivilised Dutch'), as well asverkeerd Nederlands ('incorrect Dutch').[15][16]
Standard Dutch used in a 1916 South African newspaper before Afrikaans replaced it for use in media
Most of the firstsettlers whose descendants today are theAfrikaners were from theUnited Provinces (now Netherlands),[19] with up to one-sixth of the community of FrenchHuguenot origin, and a seventh from Germany.[20]
African and Asian workers,Cape Coloured children of European settlers andKhoikhoi women,[21] and slaves contributed to the development of Afrikaans. The slave population was made up of people from East Africa, West Africa,Mughal India,Madagascar, and theDutch East Indies (modern Indonesia).[22] A number were also indigenousKhoisan people, who were valued as interpreters, domestic servants, and labourers. Many free and enslaved women married or cohabited with the male Dutch settlers. M. F. Valkhoff argued that 75% of children born to female slaves in the Dutch Cape Colony between 1652 and 1672 had a Dutch father.[23] Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman argue that Afrikaans' development as a separate language was "heavily conditioned by nonwhites who learned Dutch imperfectly as a second language."[24]
Beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replaceMalay as the language of instruction inMuslim schools in South Africa, written with theArabic alphabet: seeArabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with theLatin script, started to appear in newspapers and political and religious works in around 1850 (alongside the already established Dutch).[13]
In 1875 a group of Afrikaans-speakers from the Cape formed theGenootskap vir Regte Afrikaaners ('Society for Real Afrikaners'),[13] and published a number of books in Afrikaans including grammars, dictionaries, religious materials and histories.
Until the early 20th century Afrikaans was considered aDutch dialect, alongsideStandard Dutch, which it eventually replaced as an official language.[10] Before theBoer wars, "and indeed for some time afterwards, Afrikaans was regarded as inappropriate for educated discourse. Rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as 'a kitchen language' or 'a bastard jargon', suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants."[25][better source needed]
In 1925 Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a distinct language, rather than simply a vernacular of Dutch.[13] On 8 May 1925, that is 23 years after theSecond Boer War ended,[25] theOfficial Languages of the Union Act, 1925 was passed—mostly due to the efforts of theAfrikaans-language movement—at a joint sitting of theHouse of Assembly and theSenate, in which the Afrikaans language was declared a variety of Dutch.[26] TheConstitution of 1961 reversed the position of Afrikaans and Dutch, so that English and Afrikaans were the official languages, and Afrikaans was deemed to include Dutch. TheConstitution of 1983 removed any mention of Dutch altogether.
The earliest Afrikaans texts were somedoggerel verses from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Afrikaans used the Latin alphabet around this time, although theCape Muslim community used the Arabic script. In 1861, L.H. Meurant published hisZamenspraak tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar (Conversation between Nicholas Truthsayer and John Doubter), which is considered to be the first book published in Afrikaans.[30]
The Afrikaners primarily were Protestants, of theDutch Reformed Church of the 17th century. Their religious practices were later influenced in South Africa by British ministries during the 1800s.[31] A landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the whole Bible into Afrikaans. While significant advances had been made in thetextual criticism of the Bible, especially the GreekNew Testament, the 1933 translation followed theTextus Receptus and was closely akin to theStatenbijbel. Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the DutchStatenbijbel. ThisStatenvertaling had its origins with theSynod of Dordrecht of 1618 and was thus in anarchaic form of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.
C. P. Hoogehout,Arnoldus Pannevis [af], andStephanus Jacobus du Toit were the firstAfrikaans Bible translators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C. P. Hoogehout's translation of theEvangelie volgens Markus (Gospel of Mark, lit. 'Gospel according to Mark'); however, this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town.
The first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 byJ. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, andBB Keet.[32][33] This monumental work established Afrikaans as'n suiwer en ordentlike taal, that is "a pure and proper language" for religious purposes, especially among the deeplyCalvinist Afrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of aBible translation that varied from the Dutch version that they were used to.
In 1983 a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version. The final editing of this edition was done by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg and W. Kempen. This translation was influenced byEugene Nida's theory ofdynamic equivalence which focused on finding the nearest equivalent in the receptor language to the idea that the Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic wanted to convey.
A new translation,Die Bybel: 'n Direkte Vertaling was released in November 2020. It is the first trulyecumenical translation of the Bible in Afrikaans as translators from various churches, including theRoman Catholic andAnglican Churches, were involved.[34]
The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: density of Afrikaans home-language speakers.
<1 /km2
1–3 /km2
3–10 /km2
10–30 /km2
30–100 /km2
100–300 /km2
300–1000 /km2
1000–3000 /km2
>3000 /km2
The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in Namibia.
Besides South-Africa, Afrikaans is also widely spoken in Namibia. Before independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. Since independence in 1990, Afrikaans has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language.[43][44] There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among Zimbabwe's white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools inBophuthatswana, an Apartheid-eraBantustan.[45]Eldoret in Kenya was founded by Afrikaners.[46]
There are also around 30,000South-Africans in the Netherlands, of which the majority are of Afrikaans-speaking Afrikaner and Coloured South-African descent.[47] A much smaller and unknown number of Afrikaans speakers also reside in theDutch Caribbean.
Contrary to popular belief, the majority of Afrikaans speakers today are notAfrikaners orBoers, butColoureds.[48]
In 1976, secondary-school pupils inSoweto begana rebellion in response to the government's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). AlthoughEnglish is themother tongue of only 8.2% of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and thesecond language of a majority of South Africans.[49] Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometres from Soweto. The Black community's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underlined when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96% of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction.[50] Afrikaans-medium schools were also accused of using language policy to deter Black African parents.[51] Some of these parents, in part supported by provincial departments of education, initiated litigation which enabled enrolment with English as language of instruction. By 2006 there were 300 single-medium Afrikaans schools, compared to 2,500 in 1994, after most converted to dual-medium education.[51] Due to Afrikaans being viewed as the "language of the white oppressor" by some, pressure has been increased to remove Afrikaans as a teaching language in South African universities, resulting in bloody student protests in 2015.[52][53][54]
UnderSouth Africa's Constitution of 1996, Afrikaans remains anofficial language, and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, theSouth African Broadcasting Corporation reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, whileSouth African Airways dropped its Afrikaans nameSuid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens from itslivery. Similarly, South Africa'sdiplomatic missions overseas now display the name of the country only in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans. Meanwhile, theconstitution of the Western Cape, which went into effect in 1998, declares Afrikaans to be an official language of the province alongside English andXhosa.[55]
The Afrikaans-language general-interest family magazineHuisgenoot has the largest readership of any magazine in the country.[56]
When the British design magazineWallpaper described Afrikaans as "one of the world's ugliest languages" in its September 2005 article about themonument,[57] South African billionaireJohann Rupert (chairman of theRichemont Group), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such asCartier,Van Cleef & Arpels,Montblanc andAlfred Dunhill from the magazine.[58] The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was anEnglish-speaking South African.
An estimated 90 to 95 percent of the Afrikaans lexicon is ultimately of Dutch origin,[59][60][61] and there are few lexical differences between the two languages.[62] Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology,[63] grammar, and spelling.[64] There is a high degree ofmutual intelligibility between the two languages,[65][66] particularly in written form.[64][67][68]
Afrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such asMalay,Khoisan languages, Portuguese,[69] German andBantu languages.[70] Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced bySouth African English, especially in the Western Cape.[71] Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way round.[72] Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.[73]
Afrikaans is an official language of the Republic of South Africa and a recognised national language of the Republic of Namibia.Post-apartheid South Africa has seen a loss of preferential treatment by the government for Afrikaans, in terms of education, social events,media (TV and radio), and general status throughout the country, given that it now shares its place as official language with ten other languages. Nevertheless, Afrikaans remains more prevalent in the media – radio, newspapers and television[82] – than any of the other official languages, except English. More than 300 book titles in Afrikaans are published annually.[83] South African census figures suggest a decreasing number of first language Afrikaans speakers in South Africa from 13.5% in 2011 to 10.6% in 2022.[78] TheSouth African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) projects that a growing majority of Afrikaans speakers will beColoured.[84] Afrikaans speakers experience higher employment rates than other South African language groups, though as of 2012[update] half a million were unemployed.[85]
Despite the challenges of demotion and emigration that it faces in South Africa, the Afrikaans vernacular remains competitive, being popular inDSTV pay channels and several internet sites, while generating high newspaper and music CD sales. A resurgence in Afrikaans popular music since the late 1990s has invigorated the language, especially among a younger generation of South Africans. A recent trend is the increased availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. Such media also prove popular with the extensive Afrikaans-speaking emigrant communities who seek to retain language proficiency in a household context.
Afrikaans-language cinema showed signs of new vigour in the early 21st century. The 2007 filmOuma se slim kind, the first full-length Afrikaans movie sincePaljas in 1998, is seen as the dawn of a new era in Afrikaans cinema. Several short films have been created and more feature-length movies, such asPoena Is Koning andBakgat (both in 2008) have been produced, besides the 2011 Afrikaans-language filmSkoonheid, which was the first Afrikaans film to screen at theCannes Film Festival. The filmPlatteland was also released in 2011.[86] The Afrikaans film industry started gaining international recognition via the likes of big Afrikaans Hollywood film stars, likeCharlize Theron (Monster) andSharlto Copley (District 9) promoting their mother tongue.
SABC 3 announced early in 2009 that it would increase Afrikaans programming due to the "growing Afrikaans-language market and [their] need for working capital as Afrikaans advertising is the only advertising that sells in the currentSouth African television market". In April 2009, SABC3 started screening several Afrikaans-language programmes.[87] There is a groundswell movement within Afrikaans to be inclusive, and to promote itself along with the indigenous official languages. In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4% (2001 Census) to 10.4% (2011 Census). The major concentrations are inHardap (41.0%),ǁKaras (36.1%),Erongo (20.5%),Khomas (18.5%),Omaheke (10.0%),Otjozondjupa (9.4%),Kunene (4.2%), andOshikoto (2.3%).[88]
Some native speakers of Bantu languages andEnglish also speak Afrikaans as a second language. It is widely taught in South African schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students.[1]
Afrikaans is offered at many universities outside South Africa, including in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Russia and the United States.[89][90]
In Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between theinfinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs 'to be' and 'to have'.[91]
infinitive form
present indicative form
Dutch
English
wees
is
zijn orwezen
be
hê
het
hebben
have
In addition, verbs do notconjugate differently depending on the subject. For example,
Afrikaans
Dutch
English
ek is
ik ben
I am
jy/u is
jij/u bent
you are (sing.)
hy/sy/dit is
hij/zij/het is
he/she/it is
ons is
wij zijn
we are
julle is
jullie zijn
you are (plur.)
hulle is
zij zijn
they are
Only a handful of Afrikaans verbs have apreterite, namely the auxiliarywees ('to be'), themodal verbs, and the verbdink ('to think').[92] The preterite ofmag ('may') is rare in contemporary Afrikaans.
Afrikaans
Dutch
English
present
past
present
past
present
past
ek is
ek was
ik ben
ik was
I am
I was
ek kan
ek kon
ik kan
ik kon
I can
I could
ek moet
ek moes
ik moet
ik moest
I must
(I had to)
ek wil
ek wou
ik wil
ik wilde/wou
I want to
I wanted to
ek sal
ek sou
ik zal
ik zou
I shall
I should
ek mag
(ek mog)
ik mag
ik mocht
I may
I might
ek dink
ek dog
ik denk
ik dacht
I think
I thought
All other verbs use the perfect tense, het + past participle (ge-), for the past. Therefore, there is no distinction in Afrikaans betweenI drank andI have drunk. (In colloquial German, the past tense is also often replaced with the perfect.)
Afrikaans
Dutch
English
ek het gedrink
ik dronk
I drank
ik heb gedronken
I have drunk
When telling a longer story, Afrikaans speakers usually avoid the perfect and simply use the present tense, orhistorical present tense instead (as is possible, but less common, in English as well).
A particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of thedouble negative; it is classified in Afrikaans asontkennende vorm and is something that is absent from the other West Germanic standard languages. For example:
Afrikaans:Hy kannie Afrikaans praatnie,lit. 'He can not Afrikaans speak not'
Dutch:Hij spreektgeen Afrikaans.
English: He cannot speak Afrikaans. / Hecan't speak Afrikaans.
Both French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found inLow Franconian dialects inWest Flanders and in some "isolated" villages in the centre of the Netherlands (such asGarderen), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:
Afrikaans:Ek wil nie dit doen nie.* (lit. I want not this do not.)
Dutch:Ik wil dit niet doen.
English: I do not want to do this.
* Compare withEk wil dit nie doen nie, which changes the meaning to 'I want not to do this'. WhereasEk wil nie dit doen nie emphasizes a lack of desire to act,Ek wil dit nie doen nie emphasizes the act itself.
The-ne was theMiddle Dutch way to negate but it has been suggested that since-ne became highly non-voiced,nie orniet was needed to complement the-ne. With time the-ne disappeared in most Dutch dialects.
The double negative construction has been fully grammaticalised in standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:
Dis (Dit is) nie so moeilik om Afrikaans te leer nie.
Het is niet zo moeilijk (om) Afrikaans te leren.
It is not so difficult to learn Afrikaans.
A notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the Englishpresent participle. In this case there is only a single negation.
Afrikaans:Hy is in die hospitaal, maar hy eet nie.
Dutch:Hij is in het ziekenhuis, maar hij eet niet.
English: He is in [the] hospital, though he doesn't eat.
Certain words in Afrikaans would be contracted. For example,moet nie, which literally means 'must not', usually becomesmoenie; although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words tomoenie in the same way asdo not is contracted todon't in English.
The Dutch wordhet ('it' in English) does not correspond tohet in Afrikaans. The Dutch words corresponding to Afrikaanshet areheb,hebt,heeft andhebben.
As phonemes,/iː/ and/uː/ occur only in the wordsspieël/spiːl/ 'mirror' andkoeël/kuːl/ 'bullet', which used to be pronounced with sequences/i.ə/ and/u.ə/, respectively. In other cases,[iː] and[uː] occur as allophones of, respectively,/i/ and/u/ before/r/.[95]
[æ] occurs as an allophone of/e/ before/k,χ,l,r/, though this occurs primarily dialectally, most commonly in the formerTransvaal andFree State provinces.[100]
The rhotic is usually an alveolar trill[r] or tap[ɾ].[109] In some parts of the formerCape Province, it is realized uvularly, either as a trill[ʀ] or a fricative[ʁ].[110]
A warning sign in Afrikaans:Gevaar Slagysters or "Danger, Traps".
Following early dialectal studies of Afrikaans, it was theorised that three main historical dialects probably existed after the Great Trek in the 1830s. These dialects are the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape dialects.[n 6] Northern Cape dialect may have resulted from contact between Dutch settlers and theKhoekhoe people between the Great Karoo and the Kunene, and Eastern Cape dialect between the Dutch and the Xhosa. Remnants of these dialects still remain in present-day Afrikaans, although the standardising effect of Standard Afrikaans has contributed to a great levelling of differences in modern times.[111][better source needed]
There is also a prisoncant, known asSabela, which is based on Afrikaans, yet heavily influenced byZulu. This language is used as a secret language in prison and is taught to initiates.[111]
Patagonian Afrikaans is a distinct dialect of Afrikaans is spoken by the 650-memberSouth African community of Argentina, in the region ofPatagonia.[112]
Namibian Afrikaans is a variety of Afrikaans spoken inNamibia. The country was governed by South Africa until 1990, which had favoured Afrikaans. Before that, Dutch had been introduced when the Dutch occupiedWalvis Bay and the surrounding area.[113]
Due to the early settlement of aCape Malay community inCape Town, who are now known asColoureds, numerousClassical Malay words were brought into Afrikaans. Some of these words entered Dutch via people arriving from what is now known as Indonesia as part of their colonial heritage. Malay words in Afrikaans include:[114]
baie, which means 'very'/'much'/'many' (frombanyak) is a very commonly used Afrikaans word, different from its Dutch equivalentveel orerg.
baadjie, Afrikaans for jacket (frombaju, ultimately fromPersian), used where Dutch would usejas orvest. The wordbaadje in Dutch is now considered archaic and only used in written, literary texts.
bobotie, a traditional Cape-Malay dish, made from spicedminced meat baked with an egg-based topping.
piesang, which means banana. This is different from the common Dutch wordbanaan. The Indonesian wordpisang is also used in Dutch, though usage is less common.
piering, which meanssaucer (frompiring, also from Persian).
Some words originally came from Portuguese such assambreel ('umbrella') from the Portuguesesombreiro,kraal ('pen/cattle enclosure') from the Portuguesecurral andmielie ('corn', frommilho). Some of these words also exist in Dutch, likesambreel 'parasol',[115] though usage is less common and meanings can slightly differ.
Some of these words also exist in Dutch, though with a more specific meaning:assegaai for example means 'South-African tribal javelin'[117] andkaros means 'South-African tribal blanket of animal hides'.[118]
Loanwords fromBantu languages in Afrikaans include the names of indigenous birds, such asmahem andsakaboela, and indigenous plants, such asmaroela andtamboekie(gras).[119]
fundi, from theZulu wordumfundi meaning 'scholar' or 'student"',[120] but used to mean someone who is a student of/expert on a certain subject, i.e.He is a languagefundi.
The revoking of theEdict of Nantes on 22 October 1685 was a milestone in the history of South Africa, for it marked the beginning of the greatHuguenot exodus from France. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 300,000 Protestants left France between 1685 and 1700; out of these, according toLouvois, 100,000 had received military training. A measure of the calibre of these immigrants and of their acceptance by host countries (in particular South Africa) is given byH. V. Morton in his book:In Search of South Africa (London, 1948). The Huguenots were responsible for a great linguistic contribution to Afrikaans, particularly in terms of military terminology as many of them fought on the battlefields during the wars of theGreat Trek.
Most of the words in this list are descendants from Dutch borrowings from French, Old French or Latin, and are not direct influences from French on Afrikaans.
The Afrikaanswriting system is based onDutch, using the 26 letters of theISO basic Latin alphabet, plus 16 additional vowels withdiacritics. Thehyphen (e.g. in a compound likesee-eend 'sea duck'),apostrophe (e.g.ma's 'mothers'), and awhitespace character (e.g. in multi-word units likeDooie See 'Dead Sea') is part of theorthography of words, while the indefinite articleʼn is aligature. All the alphabet letters, including those with diacritics, have capital letters asallographs; theʼn does not have a capital letter allograph. This means that Afrikaans has 88graphemes with allographs in total.
In Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch spelling. For example,slechts ('only') in Dutch becomesslegs in Afrikaans. Also, Afrikaans and some Dutch dialects make no distinction between/s/ and/z/, having merged the latter into the former; while the word for "south" is writtenzuid in Dutch, it is spelledsuid in Afrikaans (as well as dialectal Dutch writings) to represent this merger. Similarly, the Dutch digraphij, normally pronounced as/ɛi/, corresponds to Afrikaansy, except where it replaces the Dutchsuffix–lijk which is pronounced as/lək/, as inwaarschijnlijk >waarskynlik.
Another difference is the indefinite article,'n in Afrikaans andeen in Dutch. "A book" is'n boek in Afrikaans, whereas it is eithereen boek or'n boek in Dutch. This'n is usually pronounced as just aweak vowel,[ə], just like English "a".
Thediminutive suffix in Afrikaans is-tjie,-djie or-ie, whereas in Dutch it is-tje ordje, hence a "bit" isʼnbietjie in Afrikaans andbeetje in Dutch.
The lettersc,q,x, andz occur almost exclusively in borrowings from French, English, Greek andLatin. This is usually because words that hadc andch in the original Dutch are spelled withk andg, respectively, in Afrikaans. Similarly originalqu andx are most often speltkw andks, respectively. For example,ekwatoriaal instead ofequatoriaal, andekskuus instead ofexcuus.
The vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are:á,ä,é,è,ê,ë,í,î,ï,ó,ô,ö,ú,û,ü,ý. Diacritics are ignored when alphabetising, though they are still important, even when typing the diacritic forms may be difficult. For example,geëet ("ate") instead of the 3 e's alongside each other:*geeet, which can never occur in Afrikaans, orsê, which translates to "say", whereasse is a possessive form. The acute's (á,é,í,ó,ú, ý) primary function is to place emphasis on a word (i.e. for emphatic reasons), by adding it to the emphasised syllable of the word. For example,sál ("will" (verb)),néé ('no'),móét ("must"),hý ("he"),gewéét ("knew"). The acute is only placed on thei if it is the only vowel in the emphasised word:wil ('want' (verb)) becomeswíl, butlui ('lazy') becomeslúi. Only a few non-loan words are spelled with acutes, e.g.dié ('this'),ná ('after'),óf ... óf ('either ... or'),nóg ... nóg ('neither ... nor'), etc. Only four non-loan words are spelled with the grave:nè ('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'),dè ('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'),hè ('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), andappèl ('(formal) appeal' (noun)).
A few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except if the entire line is uppercase), and if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the next word is capitalised. Three examples of such apostrophed words are'k, 't, 'n. The last (the indefinite article) is the only apostrophed word that is common in modern written Afrikaans, since the other examples are shortened versions of other words (ek andhet, respectively) and are rarely found outside of a poetic context.[126]
The apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and are never written using a single glyph, although a single character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode,ʼn.
For more on the pronunciation of the letters below, seeHelp:IPA/Afrikaans.
Afrikaans letters and pronunciation
Grapheme
IPA
Examples and Notes
a
/a/,/ɑː/
appel ('apple';/a/),tale ('languages';/ɑː/). Represents/a/ in closed syllables and/ɑː/ in stressed open syllables
á
/a/, /ɑ:/
ná (after)
ä
/a/, /ɑ:/
sebraägtig ('zebra-like'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable.
aa
/ɑː/
aap ('monkey', 'ape'). Only occurs in closed syllables.
aai
/ɑːi/
draai ('turn')
ae
/ɑːə/
vrae ('questions'); the vowels belong to two separate syllables
ai
/ai/
baie ('many', 'much' or 'very'),ai (expression of frustration or resignation)
b
/b/, /p/
boom ('tree')
c
/s/,/k/
Found only in borrowed words or proper nouns; the former pronunciation occurs before 'e', 'i', or 'y'; featured in the Latinate plural ending-ici (singular form-ikus)
ch
/ʃ/,/x/,/k/
chirurg ('surgeon';/ʃ/; typicallysj is used instead),chemie ('chemistry';/x/),chitien ('chitin';/k/). Found only in recent loanwords and in proper nouns
d
/d/,/t/
dag ('day'),deel ('part', 'divide', 'share')
dj
/d͡ʒ/,/k/
djati ('teak'),broodjie ('sandwich'). Used to transcribe foreign words for the former pronunciation, and in the diminutive suffix-djie for the latter in words ending withd
e
/e(ː)/,/æ(ː)/,/ɪə/,/ɪ/,/ə/
bed (/e/),mens ('person', /eː/) (lengthened before/n/)ete ('meal',/ɪə/ and/ə/ respectively),ek ('I', /æ/),berg ('mountain', /æː/) (lengthened before/r/)./ɪ/ is the unstressed allophone of/ɪə/
é
/e(ː)/,/æ(ː)/,/ɪə/
dié ('this'),mét ('with', emphasised),ék ('I; me', emphasised),wéét ('know', emphasised)
è
/e/
Found in loanwords (likecrèche) and proper nouns (likeEugène) where the spelling was maintained, and in four non-loanwords:nè ('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'),dè ('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'),hè ('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), andappèl ('(formal) appeal' (noun)).
ê
/eː/,/æː/
sê ('to say'),wêreld ('world'),lêer ('file') (Allophonically/æː/ before/(ə)r/)
ë
–
Diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thusë,ëe andëi are pronounced like 'e', 'ee' and 'ei', respectively
ee
/ɪə/
weet ('to know'),een ('one')
eeu
/ɪu/
leeu ('lion'),eeu ('century', 'age')
ei
/ei/
lei ('to lead')
eu
/ɪɵ/
seun ('son' or 'lad')
f
/f/
fiets ('bicycle')
g
/x/,/ɡ/
/ɡ/ exists as the allophone of/x/ if at the end of a root word preceded by a stressed single vowel +/r/ and suffixed with a schwa, e.g.berg ('mountain') is pronounced as/bæːrx/, andberge is pronounced as/bæːrɡə/
gh
/ɡ/
gholf ('golf'). Used for/ɡ/ when it is not an allophone of/x/; found only in borrowed words. If theh instead begins the next syllable, the two letters are pronounced separately.
h
/ɦ/
hael ('hail'),hond ('dog')
i
/i/,/ə/
kind ('child';/ə/),ink ('ink';/ə/),krisis ('crisis';/i/ and/ə/ respectively),elektrisiteit ('electricity';/i/ for all three; third 'i' is part of diphthong 'ei')
Found in words such askoöperasie ('co-operation'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thusö is pronounced the same as 'o' based on the following remainder of the word.
oe
/u(ː)/
boek ('book'),koers ('course', 'direction')
oei
/ui/
koei ('cow')
oo
/ʊə/
oom ('uncle' or 'sir')
ooi
/oːi/
mooi ('pretty', 'beautiful'),nooi ('invite')
ou
/ɵu/
die ou ('the guy'),die ou skoen ('the old shoe'). Sometimes spelledouw in loanwords and surnames, for exampleLouw.
p
/p/
pot ('pot'),pers ('purple' — or 'press' indicating the news media; the latter is often spelled with an <ê>)
q
/k/
Found only in foreign words with original spelling maintained; typicallyk is used instead
r
/r/
rooi ('red')
s
/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/
ses ('six'),stem ('voice' or 'vote'),posisie ('position',/z/ for first 's',/s/ for second 's'),rasioneel ('rational',/ʃ/ (nonstandard; formally /s/ is used instead)visuëel ('visual',/ʒ/ (nonstandard; /z/ is more formal)
sj
/ʃ/
sjaal ('shawl'),sjokolade ('chocolate')
t
/t/
tafel ('table')
tj
/tʃ/,/k/
tjank ('whine like a dog' or 'to cry incessantly'). The latter pronunciation occurs in the common diminutive suffix"-(e)tjie"
Found in words such asreünie ('reunion'). The diaeresis indicates the start of a new syllable, thusü is pronounced the same asu, except when found in proper nouns and surnames from German, likeMüller.
ui
/ɵi/
uit ('out')
uu
/y(ː)/
uur ('hour')
v
/f/, /v/
vis ('fish'),visuëel ('visual')
w
/v/,/w/
water ('water';/v/); allophonically/w/ after obstruents within a root; an example:kwas ('brush';/w/)
x
/z/,/ks/
xifoïed ('xiphoid';/z/),x-straal ('x-ray';/ks/).
y
/əi/
byt ('bite')
ý
/əi/
hý ('he', emphasised)
z
/z/
Zoeloe ('Zulu'). Found only inonomatopoeia and loanwords
Die Here is my Herder, niks sal my ontbreek nie. Hy laat my neerlê in groen weivelde; na waters waar rus is, lei Hy my heen. Hy verkwik my siel; Hy lei my in die spore van geregtigheid, om sy Naam ontwil. Al gaan ek ook in 'n dal van doodskaduwee, ek sal geen onheil vrees nie; want U is met my: u stok en u staf die vertroos my.
Die Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie. Hy laat my rus in groen weivelde. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is. Hy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam. Selfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.
Ons Vader in die hemel, laat u Naam geheilig word. Laat u koninkryk kom. Laat u wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel. Gee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het. En vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het. Bewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; maar bevry ons van die greep van die bose. Want aan U behoort die koningskap, en die krag, en die heerlikheid, vir altyd. Amen.
Onse Vader wat in die hemel is, laat U Naam geheilig word; laat U koninkryk kom; laat U wil geskied op die aarde, net soos in die hemel. Gee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood; en vergeef ons ons skulde soos ons ons skuldenaars vergewe en laat ons nie in die versoeking nie maar verlos ons van die bose Want aan U behoort die koninkryk en die krag en die heerlikheid tot in ewigheid. Amen
^The changed spelling rule was introduced in article 1, rule 3, of the Dutch "orthography law" of 14 February 1947. In 1954 theWord list of the Dutch language which regulates the spelling of individual words including the wordAfrikaans was first published.[11]
^kan would be best used in this case becausekan nie means cannot and since he is sick he is unable to come, whereassal is 'will' in English and is thus not the best word choice.
^They were named before the establishment of the currentWestern Cape, Eastern Cape, andNorthern Cape provinces, and are not dialects of those provincesper se.
^K. Pithouse, C. Mitchell, R. Moletsane, Making Connections: Self-Study & Social Action, p.91
^J. A. Heese (1971).Die herkoms van die Afrikaner, 1657–1867 [The origin of the Afrikaner] (in Afrikaans). Cape Town: A. A. Balkema.OCLC1821706.OL5361614M.
^Heeringa, Wilbert; de Wet, Febe; van Huyssteen, Gerhard B. (2015). "The origin of Afrikaans pronunciation: a comparison to west Germanic languages and Dutch dialects".Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus.47.doi:10.5842/47-0-649.ISSN2224-3380.
^Alatis; Hamilton; Tan, Ai-Hui (2002).Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics 2000: Linguistics, Language and the Professions: Education, Journalism, Law, Medicine, and Technology. Washington, DC:Georgetown University Press. p. 132.ISBN978-0-87840-373-8.
^Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah, eds. (2008).Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Oxford:Elsevier. p. 8.ISBN978-0-08-087774-7.
^den Besten, Hans (1989). "From Khoekhoe foreignertalk via Hottentot Dutch to Afrikaans: the creation of a novel grammar". In Pütz; Dirven (eds.).Wheels within wheels: papers of the Duisburg symposium on pidgin and creole languages. Frankfurt-am-Main: Peter Lang. pp. 207–250.
^Clark, Nancy L.; William H. Worger (2016).South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid (3rd ed.). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.ISBN978-1-138-12444-8.OCLC883649263.
^abKaplan, R. B.; Baldauf, R. B. "Language Planning & Policy: Language Planning and Policy in Africa: Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa".{{cite web}}:Missing or empty|url= (help)(registration required)
^Linfield, Susie (29 September 2020). "An Interview with Breyten Breytenbach".Salmagundi. No. 128–129: Fall 2000 – Winter 2001. pp. 249–274.JSTOR40549282.
^Oranje FM, Radio Sonder Grense, Jacaranda FM, Radio Pretoria, Rapport, Beeld, Die Burger, Die Son, Afrikaans news is run everyday; the PRAAG website is a web-based news service. On pay channels, it is provided as second language on all sports, Kyknet
^South African Journal of Ethnology. Vol. 22–24. Bureau for Scientific Publications of the Foundation for Education, Science and Technology. 1999. p. 157.
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