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From the firstUnited States Congress in 1789 through the119th Congress in 2024, 198African Americans served in Congress.[1] Meanwhile, the total number of all individuals who have served in Congress over that period is 12,585.[2] Between 1789 and 2024, 186 have served in theHouse of Representatives, 14 have served in theSenate, and two have served in both chambers. Voting members have totaled 193, while five others have served asdelegates.[3] Party membership has been 135Democrats and 31Republicans. While 13 members founded theCongressional Black Caucus in 1971 during the92nd Congress, in the 119th Congress (2025–2027), 62 served, with all of them being Democrats (total seats are 535, plus six delegates).[4]
By the time of the first edition of the House sponsored book,Black Americans in Congress, in thebicentennial year of 1976, 45 African Americans had served in Congress throughout history; that rose to 66 by the second edition in 1990, and there were further sustained increases in both the 2008 and 2018 editions.[5] The first African American to serve was SenatorHiram Revels in 1870. The first African American to chair a congressional committee was RepresentativeWilliam L. Dawson in 1949. The first African-American woman was RepresentativeShirley Chisholm in 1968, and the first African American to becomeDean of the House wasJohn Conyers in 2015. The first African American to become party leader in either chamber of congress wasHakeem Jeffries in 2023. One member, then senatorBarack Obama, went from the Senate toPresident of the United States in 2009.
The first African Americans to serve in the Congress were Republicans elected during theReconstruction Era. After the 13th and 14th Amendments granted freedom and citizenship toenslaved people,freedmen gained political representation in theSouthern United States for the first time.[6][7][8] In response to the growing numbers of black statesmen and politicians, white Democrats turned to violence and intimidation to regain their political power.[9]
By thepresidential election of 1876, only three state legislatures were not controlled by whites. TheCompromise of 1877 completed the period ofRedemption by white Southerners, with the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. State legislatures began to passJim Crow laws to establishracial segregation and restrict labor rights, movement, and organizing by black people. They passed some laws to restrict voter registration, aimed at suppressing the black vote. From 1890 to 1908, state legislatures in the South essentiallydisfranchised most black people and many poor white people from voting by passing new constitutions or amendments or other laws related to more restrictive electoral and voter registration and electoral rules. As a result of theCivil Rights Movement, the U.S. Congress passed laws in the mid-1960s to end segregation and enforce constitutionalcivil rights andvoting rights.
As Republicans accommodated the end of Reconstruction becoming more ambiguous on civil rights and with the rise of the Republicanlily-white movement, African Americans began shifting away from the Republican Party.[10] During two waves of massivemigration within the United States in the first half of the 20th century, more than six million African Americans moved from the South toNortheastern,Midwestern, andWestern industrial cities, with five million migrating from 1940 to 1970. Some were elected to federal political office from these new locations, and most were elected as Democrats. During theGreat Depression, many black voters switched allegiances from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party, in support of theNew Deal economic, social network and work policies ofFranklin D. Roosevelt's administration. This trend continued through the 1960s civil rights legislation, when voting rights returned to the South, to present.
The right of black people to vote and to serve in theUnited States Congress was established after theCivil War by amendments to theConstitution. TheThirteenth Amendment (ratified December 6, 1865), abolishedslavery. TheFourteenth Amendment (ratified July 9, 1868) made all people born or naturalized in the United States citizens. TheFifteenth Amendment (ratified February 3, 1870) forbade the denial or abridgment of the right to vote on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude, and gave Congress the power to enforce the law by appropriate legislation.
The first black person to address Congress wasHenry Highland Garnet, in 1865, on occasion of the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment.[11]
In 1866, Congress passed theCivil Rights Act and the fourReconstruction Acts, which dissolved all governments in the formerConfederate states with the exception ofTennessee. It divided the South into five military districts, where the military through the Freedmen's Bureau helped protect the rights and safety of newly freed black people. The act required that the former Confederate states ratify their constitutions conferring citizenship rights on black people or forfeit their representation in Congress.[12]
As a result of these measures, black people acquired the right to vote across the Southern states. In several states (notablyMississippi andSouth Carolina), black people were the majority of the population. By forming coalitions with pro-Union white people, Republicans took control of the state legislatures. At the time, state legislatures elected the members of theU.S. Senate. During Reconstruction, only the state legislature of Mississippi elected any black senators. On February 25, 1870,Hiram Rhodes Revels was seated as the first black member of theSenate, whileBlanche Bruce, also of Mississippi, seated in 1875, was the second. Revels was the first black member of the Congress overall.[13]
Black people were a majority of the population in manycongressional districts across the South. In 1870,Joseph Rainey ofSouth Carolina was elected to theU.S. House of Representatives, becoming the first directly elected black member of Congress to be seated.[14] Black people were elected to national office also fromAlabama,Florida,Georgia,Louisiana,Mississippi,North Carolina,Texas andVirginia.
All of theseReconstruction era black senators and representatives were members of theRepublican Party. The Republicans represented the party ofAbraham Lincoln and of emancipation. TheDemocrats represented the party of planters,slavery andsecession.
From 1868, Southern elections were accompanied by increasing violence, especially in Louisiana, Mississippi and the Carolinas, in an effort by Democrats to suppress black voting and regain power. In the mid-1870s,paramilitary groups such as theWhite League andRed Shirts worked openly to turn Republicans out of office and intimidate black people from voting. This followed the earlier years of secretvigilante action by theKu Klux Klan against freedmen and allied white people.
After the disputedPresidential election of 1876 between DemocraticSamuel J. Tilden, governor ofNew York, and RepublicanRutherford B. Hayes, governor ofOhio, a national agreement between Democratic and Republican factions was negotiated, resulting in theCompromise of 1877. Under the compromise, Democrats conceded the election to Hayes and promised to acknowledge the political rights of black people; Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South and promised to appropriate a portion of federal monies toward Southern projects.
With the Southern states "redeemed", Democrats gradually regained control of Southern legislatures. They proceeded to restrict the rights of the majority of black people and many poor white people to vote by imposing new requirements forpoll taxes, subjectiveliteracy tests, more strictresidency requirements and other elements difficult for laborers to satisfy.
By the 1880s, legislators increased restrictions on black voters through voter registration and election rules. In 1888John Mercer Langston, president ofVirginia State University atPetersburg, was elected to theU.S. Congress as the first African American fromVirginia. He would also be the last for nearly a century, as the state passed a disenfranchising constitution at the turn of the century that excluded black people from politics for decades.[15]
Starting with theFlorida Constitution of 1885, white Democrats passed new constitutions in ten Southern states with provisions that restricted voter registration and forced hundreds of thousands of people from registration rolls. These changes effectively prevented most black people and many poor white people from voting. Many white people who were also illiterate were exempted from such requirements asliteracy tests by such strategies as thegrandfather clause, basing eligibility on an ancestor's voting status as of 1866, for instance.
Southern state and local legislatures also passedJim Crow laws thatsegregated transportation, public facilities, and daily life. Finally, racial violence in the form oflynchings andrace riots increased in frequency, reaching a peak in the last decade of the 19th century.
The last black congressman elected from the South in the 19th century wasGeorge Henry White ofNorth Carolina, elected in 1896 and re-elected in 1898. His term expired in 1901, the same year thatWilliam McKinley, who was the last president to have fought in the Civil War, died. No black people served in Congress for the next 28 years, and none represented any Southern state for the next 72 years.
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From 1910 to 1940, theGreat Migration of black people from the rural South to Northern cities such asNew York,Philadelphia,Chicago,Detroit andCleveland began to produce black-majority Congressional districts in the North. In the North, black people could exercise their right to vote. In the two waves of the Great Migration through 1970, more than six and a half million black people moved north and west and became highly urbanized.
In 1928,Oscar De Priest won the1st Congressional District of Illinois (the South Side ofChicago) as a Republican, becoming the first black congressman of the modern era.[16]Arthur Wergs Mitchell became the first African-American Democrat elected to Congress, part of theNew Deal Coalition, when he replaced De Priest in 1935 after having defeated him in the prior year's general election. De Priest, Mitchell and their eventual successor,William Dawson, were the only African Americans in Congress up to the mid-1940s, when additional black Democrats began to be elected in Northern cities. In 1949, Dawson became the first African American in history to chair a congressional committee. De Priest was the last African-American Republican elected to the House for 58 years, untilGary Franks was elected to representConnecticut's 5th in 1990. Franks was joined byJ.C. Watts in 1994 but lost his bid for reelection two years later. After Watts retired in 2003, the House had no black Republicans until 2011, with the 2010 elections ofAllen West inFlorida's 22nd andTim Scott inSouth Carolina's 1st. West lost his reelection bid in 2012, while Scott resigned in January 2013 to accept appointment to the U.S. Senate. Two new black Republicans,Will Hurd ofTexas's 23rd district andMia Love ofUtah's 4th district, were elected in 2014, with Love being the first ever black Republican woman to be elected to Congress. She lost reelection in 2018, leaving Hurd as the only black Republican member of the U.S. House. Hurd forwent reelection in 2020, but two black Republicans were elected to the House that year:Byron Donalds in Florida andBurgess Owens in Utah. In 2022, African-American RepublicansWesley Hunt andJohn James were elected to the House from Texas and Michigan, respectively, and there currently are four black Republicans in the U.S. House of Representatives.
The election ofPresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 led to a shift of black voting loyalties from Republican to Democrat, as Roosevelt'sNew Deal programs offered economic relief to people suffering from theGreat Depression. From 1940 to 1970, nearly five million black Americans moved north and also west, especially toCalifornia, in the second wave of the Great Migration. By the mid-1960s, an overwhelming majority of black voters were Democrats, and most were voting in states outside the former Confederacy.
It was not until after passage by Congress of theVoting Rights Act of 1965, the result of years of effort on the part of African Americans and allies in the Civil Rights Movement, that black people within the Southern states recovered their ability to exercise their rights to vote and to live with full civil rights. While legal segregation ended, accomplishing voter registration and redistricting to implement the sense of the law took more time.
On January 3, 1969,Shirley Chisholm was sworn as the nation's first African-American congresswoman. Two years later, she became one of the 13 founding members of theCongressional Black Caucus.
Until 1992, most black House members were elected from inner-city districts in the North and West:New York City,Newark, New Jersey,Philadelphia,Baltimore,Chicago,Cleveland,Detroit,St. Louis andLos Angeles all elected at least one black member. Following the 1990census, Congressional districts needed to be redrawn due to the population shifts of the country. Various federal court decisions resulted in states redistricting to provide some districts where the majority of the population was composed of African Americans, rather thangerrymandering to exclude black majorities.[citation needed]
Both parties have used gerrymandering to gain political advantage by drawing districts to favor their own party. Some districts were created to link widely separated black communities.[when?] As a result, several black Democratic members of the House were elected from new districts inAlabama,Florida, ruralGeorgia, ruralLouisiana,North Carolina,South Carolina andVirginia for the first time since Reconstruction. Additional black-majority districts were also created in this way inCalifornia,Maryland andTexas, thus increasing the number of black-majority districts.[citation needed]
The creation of black-majority districts[when?] was a process supported by both parties. The Democrats saw it as a means of providing social justice, as well as connecting easily to black voters who had been voting Democratic for decades. The Republicans believed they gained by the change, as many of the Democratic voters were moved out of historically Republican-majority districts.[citation needed] By 2000, other demographic and cultural changes resulted in the Republican Party holding a majority of white-majority House districts.[citation needed]
Since the 1940s, when decades of the Great Migration resulted in millions of African Americans having migrated from the South, no state has had a majority of African-American residents. Nine African Americans have served in the Senate since the 1940s:Edward W. Brooke, a Republican fromMassachusetts;Carol Moseley Braun,Barack Obama andRoland Burris (appointed to fill a vacancy), all Democrats fromIllinois;Tim Scott (initially appointed to fill a vacancy, but later elected), a Republican fromSouth Carolina;Mo Cowan (appointed to fill a vacancy), a Democrat fromMassachusetts;Cory Booker, a Democrat fromNew Jersey;Kamala Harris, a Democrat fromCalifornia; andRaphael Warnock, a Democrat from Georgia.
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