Early colonial Adelaide was shaped by the diversity and wealth of its free settlers, there were about 50,000 settlers in the late 1900s. In contrast to the convict history of other Australian cities Adelaide was the only one without convicts. It was Australia's third-most populated city until thepostwar era. It has been noted for its leading examples of religious freedom and progressive political reforms and became known as the "City of Churches" due to its diversity of faiths.
Today, Adelaide is known byits many festivals and sporting events, itsfood and wine,[19] its coastline and hills, its large defence and manufacturing sectors, and its emerging space sector, including theAustralian Space Agency being headquartered in thecentral business district. Adelaide'squality of life has ranked consistently highly in various measures through the 21st century, at one stage being named Australia's most liveable city, third in the world.[20] Its aesthetic appeal has also been recognised byArchitectural Digest, which ranked Adelaide as the most beautiful city in the world in 2024.[21]
The approximate extent of Kaurna territory, based on the description by Amery (2000)
The area around modern-day Adelaide was originally inhabited by theKaurna people, one of manyAboriginal tribes in South Australia. The city andparklands area also known asTarntanya,[23]Tandanya (now the short name ofTandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute),Tarndanya,[24] orTarndanyangga (now the dual name forVictoria Square in theKaurna language).[25] The name means 'male red kangaroo rock', referring to a rock formation on the site that has now been destroyed.[26]
The surrounding area was an open, grassy plain with patches of trees and shrubs, which had been managed by hundreds of generations. Kaurna country encompassed the plains that stretched north and south of Tarntanya, as well as the wooded foothills of theMt Lofty Ranges. The River Torrens was known as the Karrawirra Pari (Red Gum forest river). About 300 Kaurna populated the Adelaide area, and were referred to by the settlers as the Cowandilla.[27]
The more than 20 local clans across the plain lived seminomadic lives, with extensivemound settlements where huts were built repeatedly over centuries and a complex social structure, including a class of sorcerers separated from regular society.[28]
Within a few decades ofEuropean settlement of South Australia, Kaurna culture was almost completely lost. The last speaker ofKaurna language died in 1929.[29] Extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both,[30] which has included a commitment by local and state governments to rename or include Kaurna names for many local places.[31][32]
Queen Adelaide, after whom the city was namedIn July 1876, theIllustrated Sydney News published a special supplement that included an early aerial view of the City of Adelaide: (South) Adelaide (the CBD), River Torrens, and portion of North Adelaide from a point above Strangways Terrace,North Adelaide
Based on the ideas ofEdward Gibbon Wakefield about colonial reform,Robert Gouger petitioned the British government to create a new colony in Australia, resulting in the passage of theSouth Australia Act 1834. Physical establishment of the colony began with the arrival of the first British colonisers in February 1836. The firstgovernor proclaimed the commencement of colonial government in South Australia on 28 December 1836, nearThe Old Gum Tree in what is now the suburb ofGlenelg North. The event is commemorated in South Australia asProclamation Day.[33] The site of the colony's capital was surveyed and laid out by ColonelWilliam Light, the first surveyor-general of South Australia, with his own original, unique, topographically sensitive design. The city was named afterQueen Adelaide.[34]
Adelaide was established as a planned colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution, based upon the ideas ofEdward Gibbon Wakefield. Wakefield had read accounts of Australian settlement while in prison in London for attempting to abduct an heiress,[35] and realised that the eastern colonies suffered from a lack of available labour, due to the practice of giving land grants to all arrivals.[36] Wakefield's idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen.[37] Funds raised from the sale of land were to be used to bring out working-class emigrants, who would have to work hard for the monied settlers to ever afford their own land.[38] As a result of this policy, Adelaide does not sharethe convict settlement history of other Australian cities likeSydney,Brisbane andHobart.
As it was believed that in a colony of free settlers there would be little crime, no provision was made for agaol in Colonel Light's 1837 plan. But by mid-1837 theSouth Australian Register was warning of escaped convicts from New South Wales and tenders for a temporary gaol were sought. Following a burglary, a murder, and two attempted murders in Adelaide during March 1838, Governor Hindmarsh created the South Australian Police Force (now theSouth Australia Police) in April 1838 under 21-year-oldHenry Inman.[39] The first sheriff, Samuel Smart, was wounded during a robbery, and on 2 May 1838 one of the offenders, Michael Magee, became the first person to be hanged in South Australia.[40] William Baker Ashton was appointed governor of the temporary gaol in 1839, and in 1840 George Strickland Kingston was commissioned to design Adelaide's new gaol.[41] Construction ofAdelaide Gaol commenced in 1841.[42]
Adelaide's early history was marked by economic uncertainty and questionable leadership.[dubious –discuss] The first governor of South Australia,John Hindmarsh, clashed frequently with others, in particular the Resident Commissioner,James Hurtle Fisher. The rural area surrounding Adelaide was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell a total of over 405 km2 (156 sq mi) of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock fromVictoria,New South Wales andTasmania. Wool production provided an early basis for the South Australian economy. By 1860, wheat farms had been established fromEncounter Bay in the south toClare in the north.
1888 map of Adelaide, showing the gradual development of its urban layout
George Gawler took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and, despite being under orders from theSelect Committee on South Australia in Britain not to undertake any public works, promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, theAdelaide Gaol, police barracks, a hospital, a customs house and a wharf atPort Adelaide. Gawler was recalled and replaced byGeorge Edward Grey in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, although its impact was negligible at this point: silver was discovered inGlen Osmond that year, agriculture was well underway, and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned.
Trade links with the rest of the Australian states were established after theMurray River was successfully navigated in 1853 byFrancis Cadell, an Adelaide resident. South Australia became aself-governing colony in 1856 with the ratification of a new constitution by the British parliament.Secret ballots were introduced, and abicameral parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109,917 people lived in the province.[43]
In 1860, theThorndon Park reservoir was opened, providing an alternative water source to the now turbid River Torrens. Gas street lighting was implemented in 1867, theUniversity of Adelaide was founded in 1874, theSouth Australian Art Gallery opened in 1881 and theHappy Valley Reservoir opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe economic depression, ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in Melbourne and banks in Sydney closed. The national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle.[44]
The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. Drought and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems, with some families leaving for Western Australia.[44] Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and lead discoveries atBroken Hill provided some relief. Only one year of deficit was recorded, but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. Wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn.[45]
The intersection of North Terrace andKing William Street viewed fromParliament House, 1938An aerial view of Adelaide in 1935, when it was Australia's third largest city. Of note is that only the eastern half of the new Parliament House (to left of station) had been completed.
Adelaide was Australia's third largest city for most of the 20th century.[46][47][48]Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric trams were transporting passengers in 1909. 28,000 men were sent to fight inWorld War I. HistorianF. W. Crowley examined the reports of visitors in the early 20th century, noting that "many visitors to Adelaide admired theforesighted planning of its founders", as well as pondering the riches of the young city.[49]
Adelaide enjoyed a postwar boom, entering a time of relative prosperity. Its population grew, and it became the third most populous metropolitan area in the country, afterSydney andMelbourne. Its prosperity was short-lived, with the return of droughts and theGreat Depression of the 1930s. It later returned to fortune under strong government leadership.Secondary industries helped reduce the state's dependence onprimary industries.World War II brought industrial stimulus anddiversification to Adelaide under thePlayford Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulnerable location.[50] Shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port ofWhyalla.
The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries but neglected cultural facilities which meant South Australia's economy lagged behind.[46] International manufacturers likeHolden andChrysler[51] made use of these factories around the Adelaide area insuburbs likeElizabeth, completing its transformation from anagricultural service centre to a 20th-century motor city. TheMannum–Adelaide pipeline broughtRiver Murray water to Adelaide in 1955 andan airport opened atWest Beach in 1955.Flinders University and theFlinders Medical Centre were established in the 1960s at Bedford Park, south of the city. Today, Flinders Medical Centre is one of the largest teaching hospitals in South Australia. In the post-war years around the early 1960s, Adelaide was surpassed byBrisbane as Australia's third largest city.[46]
TheDunstan Governments of the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide "cultural revival",[52] establishing a wide array of social reforms. The city became noted for itsprogressivism as South Australia became the first Australian state or territory todecriminalise homosexuality betweenconsenting adults in 1975.[53] Adelaide became a centre for the arts, building upon the biennial "Adelaide Festival of Arts" that commenced in 1960. TheState Bank collapsed in 1991 during an economic recession. The effects lasted until 2004, whenStandard & Poor's reinstated South Australia's AAA credit rating.[54] Adelaide's tallest building, completed in 2020, is called the Adelaidean and is located at 11 Frome Street.[55]
Adelaide's eastern skyline during 2022Australia Day celebrations
In the early years of the 21st century, a significant increase in the state government's spending on Adelaide's infrastructure occurred. TheRann government invested A$535 million in a major upgrade of the Adelaide Oval to enableAustralian Football League to be played in the city centre[56] and more than A$2billion to build a newRoyal Adelaide Hospital on land adjacent to the Adelaide Railway Station.[57] The Glenelg tramline was extended through the city to Hindmarsh[58] down to East Terrace[59] and the suburban railway line extended south to Seaford.[60]
Following a period of stagnation in the 1990s and 2000s, Adelaide began several major developments and redevelopments. The Adelaide Convention Centre was redeveloped and expanded at a cost of A$350 million beginning in 2012.[61] Three historic buildings were adapted for modern use: theTorrens Building in Victoria Square as the Adelaide campus for Carnegie Mellon University, University College London, and Torrens University;[62] the Stock Exchange building as the Science Exchange of the Royal Institution Australia; and the Glenside Psychiatric Hospital as the Adelaide Studios of theSA Film Corporation. The government invested more than A$2 billion to builda desalination plant, powered by renewable energy, as an "insurance policy" against droughts affecting Adelaide'swater supply.[63] TheAdelaide Festival,Fringe, andWomadelaide became annual events.[64]
Adelaide metropolitan area, with some suburbs named
Adelaide is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges. The city stretches 20 km (12 mi) from the coast to the foothills, and 90 km (56 mi) fromGawler at its northern extent toSellicks Beach in the south. According to Regional Development Australia, an Australian government planning initiative, the "Adelaide Metropolitan Region" has a total land area of 870 km2 (340 sq mi), while a more expansive definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics defines a "Greater Adelaide" statistical area totalling 3,259.8 km2 (1,258.6 sq mi).[2] The city sits at an average elevation of 50 metres (160 ft) above sea level.Mount Lofty, east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the Adelaide Hills at an elevation of 727 metres (2,385 ft), is the tallest point of the city and in the state south ofBurra. The city borders theTemperate Grassland of South Australia in the east, an endangered vegetation community.[65]
Adelaide's metropolitan area as seen by theESA'sSentinel-2
Much of Adelaide was bushland before British settlement, with some variation – sandhills, swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. The loss of the sandhills to urban development had a particularly destructive effect on the coastline due to erosion.[66] Where practical, the government has implemented programs to rebuild and vegetate sandhills at several of Adelaide's beachside suburbs.Tennyson Dunes is the largest contiguous, tertiary dune system contained entirely within Metropolitan Adelaide, providing refuge for a variety of remnant species formerly found along the entire coastline.[67] Much of the original vegetation has been cleared with what is left to be found in reserves such as theCleland National Park andBelair National Park. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the Torrens andOnkaparinga catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply with theHappy Valley Reservoir supplying around 40% and the much largerMount Bold Reservoir 10% of Adelaide's domestic requirements respectively.
Adelaide and its surrounding area is one of the most seismically active regions in Australia. On 1 March 1954 at 3:40 am Adelaide experienced its largest recorded earthquake to date, with the epicentre 12 km from the city centre atDarlington, and a reported magnitude of 5.6.[68][69] There have been smaller earthquakes in 2010,[70] 2011,[71] 2014,[72] 2017,[73] 2018[74] and 2022.[75]
Most of the Adelaide metropolitan area lies in the downthrown St Vincent Basin and its embayments, including theAdelaide Plains Sub-basin, and the Golden Grove, Noarlunga and Willunga Embayments. These basins contain deposits ofTertiary marine and non-marine sands and limestones, which form important aquifers.[77] These deposits are overlain byQuaternaryalluvial fans andpiedmont slope deposits, derived from erosion of the uplands, consisting of sands, clays and gravels,[78] interfingering to the west withtransgressivePleistocene toHolocene marine sands and coastal sediments of the shoreline of Gulf St Vincent.[79]
Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first Surveyor-General of South Australia, ColonelWilliam Light. His plan, sometimes referred to as "Light's Vision" (also the name of a statue of him onMontefiore Hill), arranged Adelaide in agrid, withfive squares in theAdelaide city centre and a ring of parks, known as theAdelaide Parklands, surrounding it. Light's selection of the location for the city was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first governor, John Hindmarsh, due to its distance from the harbour at Port Adelaide, and the lack of fresh water there.[80]
Light successfully persisted with his choice of location against this initial opposition. Recent evidence suggests that Light worked closely with George Kingston as well as a team of men to set out Adelaide, using various templates for city plans going back toAncient Greece, includingItalian Renaissance designs and the similar layouts of the American citiesPhiladelphia andSavannah–which, like Adelaide, follow the same layout of a central city square, four complementing city squares surrounding it and a parklands area that surrounds the city centre.[81]
Aerial view ofVictoria Square, one of the five main squares in the city centre and considered the heart of Adelaide'sgrid layout
The benefits of Light's design are numerous: Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily navigablecardinal direction grid layout and an expansive green ring around the city centre. There are two sets ofring roads in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. Theinner ring route (A21) borders the parklands, and the outer route (A3/A13/A16/A17) completely bypasses the inner city via (in clockwise order)Grand Junction Road, Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue,Portrush Road,Cross Road andSouth Road.[82]
Suburban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous former outlying villages and "country towns", as well as the satellite city ofElizabeth, have been enveloped by itssuburban sprawl. Expanding developments in the Adelaide Hills region led to the construction of theSouth Eastern Freeway to cope with growth, which has subsequently led to new developments and further improvements to that transport corridor. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide'sSouth led to the construction of theSouthern Expressway.
New roads are not the only transport infrastructure developed to cope with the urban growth. TheO-Bahn Busway is an example of a unique solution toTea Tree Gully's transport woes in the 1980s.[83] The development of the nearby suburb ofGolden Grove in the late 1980s followed a planned approach to urban growth.
In the 1960s, aMetropolitan Adelaide Transport Study Plan was proposed to cater for the future growth of the city. The plan involved the construction of freeways,expressways and the upgrade of certain aspects of the public transport system. The then premierSteele Hall approved many parts of the plan and the government went as far as purchasing land for the project. The laterLabor government elected underDon Dunstan shelved the plan, but allowed the purchased land to remain vacant, should the future need for freeways arise. In 1980, theLiberal party won government and premierDavid Tonkin committed his government to selling off the land acquired for the MATS plan, ensuring that even when needs changed, the construction of most MATS-proposed freeways would be impractical. Some parts of this land have been used for transport, (e.g. the O-Bahn Busway and Southern Expressway), while most has been progressively subdivided for residential use.
Historically, Adelaide's suburban residential areas have been characterised by single-storey detached houses built on 1,000-square-metre (1⁄4-acre) blocks. A relative lack of suitable, locally-available timber for construction purposes led to the early development of a brick-making industry, as well as the use of stone, for houses and other buildings. By 1891, 68% of houses were built of stone, 15% of timber, and 10% of brick, with brick also being widely used in stone houses for quoins, door and window surrounds, and chimneys and fireplaces.[86]
There is a wide variety in the styles of these houses. Until the 1960s, most of the more substantial houses were built of red brick, though many front walls were of ornamental stone. Then cream bricks became fashionable, and in the 1970s, deep red and brown bricks became popular.[citation needed] Until the 1970s, roofs tended to be clad with (painted)corrugated iron or cement or clay tiles, usually red "terracotta". Since then,Colorbond corrugated steel has dominated. Most roofs are pitched. Flat roofs are not common.[87]
Up to the 1970s, most houses were of "double brick" construction on concrete footings, with timber floors laid on joists supported by "dwarf walls". Later houses have mainly been of "brick veneer" construction – structuraltimber or, more recently,lightweight steel frame on aconcrete slabfoundation, lined withGyprock, and with an outer skin of brickwork,[87] to cope with Adelaide'sreactive soils, particularly Keswick Clay, black earth and some red-brown earth soils.[88] The use of precast concrete panels for floor and wall construction has also increased.[87] In addition to this, a significant factor in Adelaide's suburban history is the role of theSouth Australian Housing Trust.[why?]
Adelaide has a hot-summerMediterranean climate (Csa) under theKöppen climate classification.[89] The city has hot, dry summers and cool winters with moderate rainfall. Mostprecipitation falls in the winter months, leading to the suggestion that the climate be classified as a "cold monsoon".[90] Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer, although heavy falls can occur. The winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80 mm.Frosts are occasional, with the most notable occurrences in 1908 and 1982. Hail is common in winter.
Adelaide is a windy city with significantwind chill in winter, which makes the temperatureseem colder than it actually is. Snowfall in the metropolitan area is extremely rare, although light and sporadic falls in the nearby hills and atMount Lofty occur during winter. Dewpoints in the summer typically range from 8 to 10 °C (46 to 50 °F). There are usually several days in summer where the temperature reaches 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) or above. Temperature extremes range from −0.4 °C (31.4 °F), 8 June 1982 to 47.7 °C (117.9 °F), 24 January 2019. The city features 90.6 clear days annually.
The average sea temperature ranges from 13.7 °C (56.7 °F) in August to 21.2 °C (70.2 °F) in February.[91]
Climate data for Adelaide (Kent Town) 1991–2020 averages, 1977–2020 extremes
Adelaide was consistently ranked in the world's 10most liveable cities through the 2010s byThe Economist Intelligence Unit.[96][97][98][99] In June 2021,The Economist ranked Adelaide the third most liveable city in the world, behindAuckland andOsaka.[100] In June 2023, Adelaide was ranked the twelfth most liveable city in the world by the Economist Intelligence Unit.[101]
In December 2021, Adelaide was named the world's second National Park City, after the state government had lobbied for this title.[102][103]
As Adelaide is South Australia's capital and most populous city, theState Government co-operates extensively with theCity of Adelaide. In 2006, the Ministry for the City of Adelaide was created to facilitate the State Government's collaboration with theAdelaide City Council and the Lord Mayor to improve Adelaide's image. The State Parliament's Capital City Committee is also involved in the governance of the City of Adelaide, being primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth.[108]
Reflecting South Australia's status as Australia's most centralised state, Adelaide elects a substantial majority of the South Australian House of Assembly. Of the 47 seats in the chamber, 34 seats (three-quarters of the legislature) are based in Adelaide, and two rural seats include Adelaide suburbs.
Adelaide's population density by mesh blocks (MB), 2016 census
Adelaide's inhabitants are known as Adelaideans.[109][110]
Compared with Australia's other state capitals, Adelaide is growing at a rate similar to Sydney and Hobart (seeList of cities in Australia by population). In 2020, it had a metropolitan population (including suburbs) of more than 1,376,601,[111] making it Australia's fifth-largest city. 77%[112] of the population of South Australia are residents of the Adelaide metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states.
Major areas of population growth in recent years have been in outer suburbs such asMawson Lakes and Golden Grove. Adelaide's inhabitants occupy 366,912 houses, 57,695 semi-detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,413 flats, units or apartments.[113]
About one sixth (17.1%) of the population had university qualifications. The number of Adelaideans with vocational qualifications (such as tradespersons) fell from 62.1% of the labour force in the 1991 census to 52.4% in the 2001 census.
Adelaide is ageing more rapidly than other Australian capital cities. More than a quarter (27.5%) of Adelaide's population is aged 55 years or older, in comparison to the national average of 25.6%. Adelaide has the lowest number of children (under-15-year-olds), who comprised 17.7% of the population, compared to the national average of 19.3%.[113]
Overseas-born Adelaideans composed 31.3% of the total population at the 2021 census. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from England (5.7%), India (3.1%),Mainland China (1.8%), Vietnam (1.2%) and Italy (1.1%).[116]
At the 2016 census, 75.4% of the population spokeEnglish at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Italian (2.1%),Standard Mandarin (2.1%), Greek (1.7%) Vietnamese (1.4%), andCantonese (0.7%).[119] TheKaurna language, spoken by the area's original inhabitants, had no living speakers in the middle of the 20th century, but since the 1990s there has been a sustained revival effort from academics and Kaurna elders.[120]
St Nicholas Church, a Russian Orthodox church inWayville. Adelaide's 19th century moniker wasThe City of Churches.[121]
Adelaide was founded on a vision of religious tolerance that attracted a wide variety of religious practitioners. This led to it being known asThe City of Churches.[122][123][124] But approximately 28% of the population expressed no religious affiliation in the 2011 Census, compared with the national average of 22.3%, making Adelaide one of Australia's least religious cities.[125] According to 2021 census, 39.8% population of Adelaide identifies as Christian, with the largest denominations beingCatholic (16.4%),Anglican (7.0%),Uniting Church (3.9%) andGreek Orthodox (2.4%). Non-Christian faith communities representing 9.5% from Adelaide's population, includesIslam (2.8%),Hinduism (2.7%) andBuddhism (2.3%).[126]
The Jewish community of the city dates back to 1840. Eight years later, 58 Jews lived in the city.[127] A synagogue was built in 1871, when 435 Jews lived in the city. Many took part in the city councils, such asJudah Moss Solomon (1852–66). Three Jews have been elected to the position ofcity mayor.[128] In 1968, the Jewish population of Adelaide numbered about 1,200;[129] in 2001, according to the Australian census, 979 persons declared themselves to be Jewish by religion.[127] In 2011, over 1,000 Jews were living in the city, served by anOrthodox synagogue,Adelaide Hebrew Congregation and aReform synagogue,Beit Shalom, in addition to a virtual Jewish museum.Massada College, a Jewish day school opened in the city in 1976 and closed in 2011.[130][131] TheAdelaide Holocaust Museum and Andrew Steiner Education Centre opened in 2020.[132]
The "Afghan" community in Australia first became established in the 1860s when camels and their Pathan, Punjabi, Baluchi and Sindhi handlers began to be used to open up settlement in the continent's arid interior.[133] Until eventually superseded by the advent of the railways and motor vehicles, camels played an invaluable economic and social role in transporting heavy loads of goods to and from isolated settlements and mines. This is acknowledged by the name ofThe Ghan, the passenger train operating between Adelaide, Alice Springs, and Darwin. TheCentral Adelaide Mosque is regarded as Australia's oldest permanent mosque; an earliermosque at Marree in northern South Australia, dating from 1861 to 1862 and subsequently abandoned or demolished, has now been rebuilt.
The newRoyal Adelaide Hospital opened in 2017. Health care and social assistance is the largestABS-defined employment sector in South Australia.[134]
South Australia's largest employment sectors are health care and social assistance,[134][135] surpassing manufacturing in SA as the largest employer since 2006–07.[134][135] In 2009–10, manufacturing in SA had average annual employment of 83,700 persons compared with 103,300 for health care and social assistance.[134] Health care and social assistance represented nearly 13% of the state average annual employment.[136] TheAdelaide Hills wine region is an iconic and viable economic region for both the state and country in terms of wine production and sale. The 2014 vintage is reported as consisting of 5,836 t (5,744 long tons; 6,433 short tons) red grapes crushed valued at A$8,196,142 and 12,037 t (11,847 long tons; 13,269 short tons) white grapes crushed valued at $14,777,631.[137]
The retail trade is the second largest employer in SA (2009–10), with over 91,900 jobs, and 12 per cent of the state workforce.[136]
Manufacturing, defence technology, high-tech electronic systems and research, commodity export and corresponding service industries all play a role in the SA economy. Almost half of all cars produced in Australia were made in Adelaide at theHolden Elizabeth Plant inElizabeth.[138] The site ceased operating in November 2017.
Thecollapse of the State Bank in 1992 resulted in large levels of state public debt (as much as A$4 billion). The collapse meant that successive governments enacted lean budgets, cutting spending, which was a setback to the further economic development of the city and state. The debt has more recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving aAAA+ Credit Rating.[139]
The global media conglomerateNews Corporation was founded in, and until 2004 incorporated in, Adelaide and it is still considered its "spiritual" home by its founder,Rupert Murdoch.[140] Australia's largest oil company,Santos, prominent South Australian brewery,Coopers, and national retailerHarris Scarfe also call Adelaide their home.
In 2018, at which time more than 80 organisations employed 800 people in the space sector in South Australia, Adelaide was chosen for the headquarters of a newAustralian Space Agency.[141] The agency opened its in 2020. It is working to triple the size of the Australian space industry and create 20,000 new jobs by 2030.[142]
Adelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia's defence industries, which contribute over A$1 billion to South Australia's Gross State Product.[143] The principal government military research institution, theDefence Science and Technology Organisation, and other defence technology organisations such asBAE Systems Australia and Lockheed Martin Australia, are north of Salisbury and west of Elizabeth in an area now called "Edinburgh Parks", adjacent toRAAF Base Edinburgh.
As of November 2015[update], Greater Adelaide had an unemployment rate of 7.4% with a youth unemployment rate of 15%.[145]
The median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over was $447 per week in 2006, compared with $466 nationally. The median family income was $1,137 per week, compared with $1,171 nationally.[146] Adelaide's housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of Sydney and two-thirds that of Melbourne. The three-month trend unemployment rate to March 2007 was 6.2%.[147] The Northern suburbs' unemployment rate is disproportionately higher than the other regions of Adelaide at 8.3%, while the East and South are lower than the Adelaide average at 4.9% and 5.0% respectively.[148]
Over the decade March 2001 – March 2010, Metropolitan Adelaide median house prices approximately tripled. (approx. 285% – approx. 11%p.a. compounding)In the five years March 2007 – March 2012, prices increased by approx. 27% – approx. 5%p.a. compounding. March 2012 – March 2017 saw a further increase of 19% – approx. 3.5%p.a. compounding.[149][150][151][152]
In summary:
March
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Median
$140,000
$170,000
$200,000
$250,000
$270,000
$280,000
$300,000
$360,000
$350,000
$400,000
% change
21%
18%
25%
8%
4%
7%
20%
−3%
14%
March
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Median
$400,000
$380,000
$393,000
$413,000
$425,000
$436,000
$452,000
$470,000
$478,500
% change
0%
−5%
3%
5%
3%
3%
4%
All numbers approximate and rounded. Since March 2012, the REISA[153] no longer release a median house price for the Adelaide Metropolitan area, so figures retrieved are from Dept of the Premier and Cabinet.[152]
Each quarter, The Alternative and Direct Investment Securities Association (ADISA) publishes a list of median house sale prices by suburb andLocal Government Area.[citation needed] (Previously, this was done by REISA[153]) Due to the small sizes of many of Adelaide's suburbs, the low volumes of sales in these suburbs, and (over time) the huge variations in the numbers of sales in a suburb in a quarter, statistical analysis of "the most expensive suburb" is unreliable; the suburbs appearing in the "top 10 most expensive suburbs this quarter" list is constantly varying. Quarterly Reports for the last two years can be found on the REISA website.[154]
Education forms an increasingly important part of the city's economy, with theSouth Australian Government and educational institutions attempting to position Adelaide as "Australia's education hub" and marketing it as a "Learning City".[155] The number of international students studying in Adelaide has increased rapidly in recent years to 30,726 in 2015, of which 1,824 were secondary school students.[156] Adelaide is the birthplace of three Nobel laureates,more than any other Australian city: physicistWilliam Lawrence Bragg and pathologistsHoward Florey andRobin Warren, all of whom completed secondary and tertiary education atSt Peter's College and theUniversity of Adelaide.
For South Australian students who cannot attend a traditional school, including students who live in rural or remote areas, the state government runs the Open Access College (OAC), which provides virtual teaching. The OAC has a campus inMarden which caters to students from reception to Year 12 and adults who haven't been able to complete their SACE.[161][162] Guardians are also able to apply for their child to be educated from home as long as they provide an education program which meets the same requirements as the Australian Curriculum as well as opportunities for social interaction.[163]
Historic Torrens Building inVictoria Square houses campuses of several international universities operating in South Australia
There are three public universities local to Adelaide, as well as one private university and three constituent colleges of foreign universities.Flinders University of South Australia, theUniversity of Adelaide, theUniversity of South Australia andTorrens University Australia—part of theLaureate International Universities are based in Adelaide. The University of Adelaide was ranked in the top 150 universities worldwide. Flinders ranked in the top 250 and Uni SA in the top 300. Torrens University Australia is part of an international network of over 70 higher education institutions in more than 30 countries worldwide.
TheUniversity of Adelaide, with 25,000 students,[164] is Australia's third-oldest university and a member of the leading "Group of Eight". It has five campuses throughout the state, including two in the city-centre, and a campus in Singapore. TheUniversity of South Australia, with 37,000 students,[165] has two North Terrace campuses, three other campuses in the metropolitan area and campuses in the regional cities ofWhyalla andMount Gambier. The University of Adelaide and the University of South Australia have had multiple proposals to merge into a single university. A proposal in 2018 failed due to uncertainty as to the new name and leadership of the merged university.[166] In 2022, the universities announced a new merger proposal, with the name and leadership issues settled and support from the South Australian government.[167]
There are several South AustralianTAFE (Technical and Further Education) campuses in the metropolitan area that provide a range of vocational education and training. TheAdelaide College of the Arts, as a school of TAFE SA, provides nationally recognised training in visual and performing arts.
The list of universities and higher education institutions in Adelaide is available onthis webpage.
In addition to the universities, Adelaide is home to research institutes, including theRoyal Institution of Australia, established in 2009 as a counterpart to the two-hundred-year-oldRoyal Institution of Great Britain.[171] Many of the organisations involved in research tend to be geographically clustered throughout the Adelaide metropolitan area:
Research Park atThebarton: businesses involved in materials engineering, biotechnology, environmental services, information technology, industrial design, laser/optics technology, health products, engineering services, radar systems, telecommunications and petroleum services.
Science Park (adjacent to Flinders University): Playford Capital.
New Year's Eve celebrations inElder Park on the River Torrens (mid right), Adelaide Oval (further, left) and Adelaide Festival Centre (near right) are also in view.
While established as aBritish province, and very much English in terms of its culture, Adelaide attracted immigrants from other parts of Europe early on, including German and other European non-conformists escaping religious persecution. The firstGerman Lutherans arrived in 1838,[180] bringing with them thevine cuttings that they used to found the acclaimed wineries of theBarossa Valley.
Adelaide's arts scene flourished in the 1960s and 1970s with the support of successive premiers from both major political parties. The renownedAdelaide Festival of Arts was established in 1960 under Thomas Playford, which in the same year spawned an unofficial uncurated series of performances and exhibits which grew into theAdelaide Fringe. Construction of theAdelaide Festival Centre began under Steele Hall in 1970 and was completed under the subsequent government ofDon Dunstan, who also established theSouth Australian Film Corporation in 1972 and theState Opera of South Australia in 1976.
TheLion Arts Factory, within the Lion Arts Centre, hosts contemporary music in a wide range of genres, as does "The Gov" inHindmarsh. The city also has numerous smaller theatres, pubs and cabaret bars which host performances.
In 2015, it was said that there were now more live music venues per capita in Adelaide than any other capital city in the southern hemisphere,[183][184]Lonely Planet labelled Adelaide "Australia's live music city",[185] and the city was recognised as a "City of Music" by theUNESCO Creative Cities Network.[186] Although there were many pubs hosting live music in the CBD in past, the number has slowly diminished. TheGrace Emily onWaymouth Street, which was refurbished as a live music venue around 2000, is popular with musicians and patrons alike.[187] TheCrown & Anchor ("the Cranker") was saved from demolition in 2024 after a vigorous campaign by the public as well as many musicians and politicians. New legislation passed on 11 September 2024 designates the entire Adelaide CBD as a "live music venue area", and gives protection to selected live music venues.[188]
Noted rockerJimmy Barnes (formerly lead vocalist with Cold Chisel) spent most of his youth in the northern suburb ofElizabeth. Australian singer-songwriterPaul Kelly grew up in Adelaide and was head prefect atRostrevor College. The firstAustralian Idol winner, Guy Sebastian, hails from the north-eastern suburb ofGolden Grove.[189]
As part of a nationwide phase-out ofanalogue television in Australia, Adelaide's analogue television service was shut down on 2 April 2013.[191]
TheFoxtelpay TV service is also available via cable or satellite to the entire metropolitan area.
All the major broadcasting networks also operate online on-demand television services, alongside internet-only services such asStan,Fetch TV,Netflix, YouTube,Disney+, andKayo Sports.
There are 20 radio stations that serve the metropolitan area, as well as four stations that serve only parts of the metropolitan area; six commercial stations, six community stations, six national stations and two narrowcast stations.[192]
DAB+ digital radio has been broadcasting in metropolitan Adelaide since 20 May 2009, and currently offers a choice of 41 stations all operated by the existing licensed radio broadcasters, which includes high-qualitysimulcast of all AM and FM stations.
Adelaide has developed a strong culture of attracting crowds to major sporting events.[193] Until the completion of the 2012–14 renovation and upgrade of theAdelaide Oval, most large sporting events took place at eitherFootball Park (the then home base of theAdelaide Crows, and the thenPort Adelaide home game venue), or the historicAdelaide Oval, home of theSouth Australia Redbacks and theAdelaide Strikers cricket teams. Since completion of the upgrade, home games for Adelaide Crows and Port Adelaide now take place at Adelaide Oval.
For two years, 1997 and 1998, Adelaide was represented in Australia's top levelrugby league, after theNew South Wales Rugby League had played a single game per season at the Adelaide Oval for five years starting in 1991.[194] TheAdelaide Rams were formed and played in the breakawaySuper League (SL) competition in1997 before moving to the newNational Rugby League in1998. Initially playing at the Adelaide Oval, the club moved to the more suitable Hindmarsh Stadium late in the 1998 season. As part of a peace deal with theAustralian Rugby League to end theSuper League war, the club's ownersNews Limited (who were also owners of the SL) suddenly closed the club only weeks before the start of the1999 season.
Adelaide has two professional basketball teams, the men's team being theAdelaide 36ers which plays in theNational Basketball League (NBL) and the women's team, theAdelaide Lightning which plays in theWomen's National Basketball League (WNBL). The Adelaide 36ers play at theAdelaide Entertainment Centre while the Adelaide Lightning play at theAdelaide Arena (Previously Titanium Security Arena). Adelaide has a professionalnetball team, theAdelaide Thunderbirds, which plays in the national netball competition, theSuncorp Super Netball championship, with home games played atNetball SA Stadium. The Thunderbirds occasionally play games or finals at the Titanium Security Arena, while international netball matches are usually played at the 10,500 seat Adelaide Entertainment Centre. The Titanium Security Arena has a capacity of 8,000 and is the largest purpose-built basketball stadium in Australia.
The Adelaide Street Circuit as seen from a helicopter in November 2024. The Adelaide Oval can also be seen on the right.
TheAustralian Grand Prix for World ChampionshipFormula One racing was hosted by Adelaide from1985 to1995 on theAdelaide Street Circuit which was laid out in the city's East End as well as the eastern parklands including theVictoria Park Racecourse.[197] The Grand Prix became a source of pride, and losing the event to Melbourne in a surprise announcement in mid-1993 left a void that has since been filled with theAdelaide 500 forV8 Supercar racing, held on a modified version of the same street circuit. The Classic Adelaide, arally of classic sporting vehicles, is also held in the city and its surrounds.
TheWorld Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations, although some are fielded by high schools. The race has a 20-years' history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987. Adelaide hosted the 2012 World Bowls Championships[198] at Lockleys Bowling Club, becoming the third city in the world to have held the championships twice, having previously hosted the event in 1996.
In 2016, backed by South Australia'sPeregrine Corporation opened up a multi-purpose facility; a state-of-the-art motorsporting park and a hotel alongside its newer OTR service station outside a small township ofTailem Bend currently namedThe Bend Motorsport Park. Design for thrill seekers and rev-heads the facility currently host South Australia's second Supercars motoring event during a round in August.[199]
Adelaide is home to theGreat Southern Slam, the world's largestroller derby tournament. The tournament has been held biennially over Australia's Queen's Birthday holiday weekend since 2010. In 2014, and 2016 the tournament featured 45 teams playing in two divisions. In 2018, the tournament has expanded to 48 teams competing in three divisions.
Adelaide is additionally home to Angus Lippiatt, an Australian glider (sailplane) pilot.
Adelaide's railway and tram network, served by theAdelaide Metro
Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for east–west and north–south routes. The city itself has a metropolitan public transport system managed by and known as theAdelaide Metro. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including theO-Bahn Busway,7 commuter rail lines (diesel and electric), and a small tram network operating between inner suburbHindmarsh, the city centre, and seasideGlenelg. Tramways were largely dismantled in the 1950s, but saw a revival in the 2010s with upgrades and extensions.
Road transport in Adelaide has historically been easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Adelaide was known as a "twenty-minute city", with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, such arterial roads often experience traffic congestion as the city grows.[200]
The Adelaide metropolitan area has one freeway and four expressways. In order of construction, they are:
TheSouth Eastern Freeway (M1), connects the south-east corner of the Adelaide Plain to the Adelaide Hills and beyond toMurray Bridge andTailem Bend, where it then continues as National Highway 1 south-east to Melbourne.
TheSouthern Expressway (M2), connecting the outer southern suburbs with the inner southern suburbs and the city centre. It duplicates the route ofSouth Road.
TheNorth-South Motorway (M2), is an ongoing major project that will become the major north–south corridor, replacing most of what is nowSouth Road, connecting theSouthern Expressway and theNorthern Expressway via a motorway with no traffic lights. As of 2024 the motorway's northern half is complete, connecting the Northern Expressway to Adelaide's inner north-west; the section running through Adelaide's inner west and inner south-west will begin major construction in 2025 with completion estimated for 2031.[201]
ThePort River Expressway (A9), connects Port Adelaide andOuter Harbor to Port Wakefield Road at the northern "entrance" to the metropolitan area.
TheNorthern Expressway (Max Fatchen Expressway) (M2), is the northern suburbs bypass route connecting the Sturt Highway (National Highway 20) via theGawler Bypass to Port Wakefield Road at a point a few kilometres north of the Port River Expressway connection.
TheNorthern Connector, completed in 2020, links the North South Motorway to the Northern Expressway.
ACustom Coaches bodied Scania bus on King William Street.
The Adelaide metropolitan area has two commercial airports,Adelaide Airport andParafield Airport. Adelaide Airport, in Adelaide's south-western suburbs, serves in excess of 8 million passengers annually.[202] Parafield Airport, Adelaide's second airport 18 kilometres (11 miles) north of the city centre, is used for small aircraft, pilot training and recreational aviation purposes. Parafield Airport served as Adelaide's main aerodrome until the opening of the Adelaide Airport in February 1955. Adelaide Airport serves many international and domestic destinations including all Australian state capitals.
Adelaide is also home to a military airport, known asEdinburgh Airport, located in the northern suburbs. It was built in 1955 in a joint initiative with the United Kingdom for weapon development.
TheUniversity of Adelaide Health and Medical Sciences Building, located in the BioMed City precinct on North Terrace
Adelaide's two largest hospitals are theRoyal Adelaide Hospital (RAH) in Adelaide Parklands, ateaching hospital affiliated with the University of Adelaide (800 beds), and theFlinders Medical Centre (580 beds) at Bedford Park, affiliated with Flinders University. The RAH also operates additional campuses for specialist care throughout the suburbs including the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre (150 beds) atNorthfield and theGlenside Campus (129 beds) for acute mental health services.
In 2017, the RAH was relocated from the city'sEast End to a new AU$2.3 billion facility built over former railyards in the West End.[203] The state-of-the-art hospital forms part of a new biomedical precinct calledBioMed City that collocates theSouth Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), the University of Adelaide Health and Medical Sciences building, the University of South Australia's Health Innovation Building, and the state's Dental Hospital.[204][205] SAHMRI, with additional external funding, has built a $300 million second facility completed in 2024, which was intended to house theAustralian Bragg Centre with Australia's firstproton therapy unit.[206] Construction is underway for theWomen's and Children's Hospital to be relocated to the precinct adjacent the RAH by 2030.[207]
The largest provider of community health care within Adelaide is the not-for-profitRoyal District Nursing Service, which provides out of hospital care and hospital avoidance care.
Adelaide's energy requirements were originally met by theAdelaide Electric Supply Company, which was nationalised by thePlayford government in 1946,[208] becoming theElectricity Trust of South Australia (ETSA). Despite significant public opposition and the Labor party's anti-privatisation stance which left the Liberal party one vote short of the numbers needed to pass the legislation, ETSA was privatised by theOlsen Government in 1999 by way of a 200-year lease for the distribution network (ETSA Utilities, later renamedSA Power Networks) and the outright purchase of ETSA Power[clarification needed] by theCheung Kong Holdings for $3.5 billion (11 times ETSA's annual earnings) after Labor MPTrevor Crothers resigned from the party and voted with the government.[209][210]
The electricity retail market was opened to competition in 2003 and although competition was expected to result in lower retail costs, prices increased by 23.7% in the market's first year.[211] In 2004, the privatisation was deemed to be a failure with consumers paying 60% more for their power and with the state government estimated to lose $3 billion in power generation net income in the first ten years of privatisation.[212] In 2012, the industry came under scrutiny for allegedly reducing supply by shutting down generators during periods of peak demand to force prices up. Increased media attention also revealed that in 2009 the state government had approved a 46% increase in retail prices to cover expected increases in the costs of generation while generation costs had in fact fallen 35% by 2012.[citation needed] South Australia has the highest retail price for electricity in the country.[213]
Privatisation led to competition from a variety of companies who now separately provide for the generation, transmission, distribution and retail sales of gas and electricity. Electricity generation comes from a range of technologies and operators.ElectraNet operates the high-voltage electricity transmission network.SA Power Networks distributes electricity to end users. The largest electricity and gas retailing companies are also the largest generating companies.
In 2011, South Australia generated 18% of its electricity fromwind power, and had 51% of the installed capacity of wind generators in Australia.[215]
Due to almost universal blackouts within the city during September 2016,[216] the state worked withTesla to produce the world's largest electricity battery atHornsdale Power Reserve which has increased that state's electrical security to the extent in which large blackouts are no longer an event.[217]
The provision of water services is by the government-ownedSA Water. Adelaide's water is supplied from its seven reservoirs:Mount Bold,Happy Valley,Myponga,Millbrook,Hope Valley,Little Para andSouth Para. The yield from these reservoir catchments can be as little as 10% of the city's requirements (90GL per annum[218]) in drought years and about 60% in average years. The remaining demand is met by the pumping of water from theRiver Murray.[218]
Asea-water desalination plant capable of supplying 100GL per annum was built during the2001–2009 drought; however, it operated at about 8% of its capacity until 2019. In December 2018, the State and Federal Governments agreed to fund a $2m study to determine how the plant could be used to reduce reliance on river water, in an effort to help save the Murray River basin and mouth (including theCoorong) from further ecological damage.[218]
AdelaideFree WiFi is a citywide freeWi-Fi network covering most of the inner city areas of Adelaide, primarily theAdelaide CBD and Northern Adelaide precincts.[219] It was officially launched at the Adelaide Central Markets on Tuesday 25 June 2014.[219][220][221] It is provided byInternode,[222] with infrastructure provided by outdoorCisco WiFi N access points attached to the top of lighting poles, as well as inside cafes and businesses across the city.
The City of Adelaide has been involved in the Sister Cities program since 1972. As of 2023[update] it has long-term international partnership arrangements with five cities, known assister cities, based on formal agreements between Adelaide and each city. This allows collaboration in the cultural, educational, business, and technical spheres. The five sister cities are:[223]
Three cities are known as Friendship Cities, based on informal partnerships between three cities that promote collaboration and a friendly relationship between three cities:[223]
^In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, England, Scotland,Mainland China and the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong andMacau are listed separately
^The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of theAnglo-Celtic group.[115]
^Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not includeTorres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) which is a separate question.
^Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
^Vignesh, K.S.; Rajadesingu, Suriyaprakash; Arunachalam, Kantha Deivi (2021). "Challenges, issues, and problems with zero-waste tools".Concepts of Advanced Zero Waste Tools. Elsevier. pp. 69–90.doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822183-9.00004-0.ISBN9780128221839.S2CID230570450.Adelaide is the capital city of South Australia and includes 19 municipal areas.
Edward Curr,An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land, principally designed for the use of emigrants, George Cowie & Co., London, 1824;
Henry Widdowson,Present State of Van Diemen's Land; comprising an account of its agricultural capabilities, with observations on the present state of farming, &c. &c. pursued in that colony: and other important matters connected with Emigration, S. Robinson, W. Joy and J. Cross, London, and J. Birdsall, Northampton, 1829; and
James Atkinson,An Account of the State of Agriculture & Grazing in New South Wales; Including Observations on the Soils and General Appearance of the Country, and some of its most useful natural productions; with an account of the Various Methods of Clearing and Improving Lands, Breeding and Grazing Live Stock, Erecting Buildings, the System of employing Convicts, and the expense of Labour generally; the Mode of Applying for Grants of Land; with Other Information Important to those who are about to emigrate to that Country: The result of several years' residence and practical experience in those matters in the Colony., J. Cross, London, 1826
^Wakefield,Letter from Sydney, December 1829, pp. 99–185, written from Newgate prison. Editor Robert Gouger.
^Wakefield wrote about this under a pseudonym, purporting to be an Australian settler. His subterfuge was so successful that he confused later writers, includingKarl Marx, who wrote "It is the great merit of E.G. Wakefield to have discovered not anything new about the Colonies, but to have discovered in the Colonies the truth of as to the condition of capitalist production in the mother-country.'Das Kapital, Moscow, 1958, p 766"
^Plan of a Company to be Established for the Purpose of Founding a Colony in Southern Australia, Purchasing Land Therein, and Preparing the Land so Purchased for the Reception of Immigrants, 1832; in Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, Prichard, M. F., (ed.)The Collected Works of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, Collins, London, 1968, p 290.
^Harvey, Nick; Fornasiero, Jean; McCarthy, Greg; MacIntyre, Clem; Crossin, Carl (2012).A History of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Adelaide 1876–2012. University of Adelaide Press. p. 245.ISBN978-1-922064-36-3.{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)
^Troy, Patrick (2000).A History of European Housing in Australia. Cambridge University Press. p. 188.ISBN978-0-521-77733-9.
^F.K. Crowley,Modern Australia in Documents: 1901–1939
^Cockburn, S (1991):Playford – Benevolent Despot. Axiom Publishing. P. 85.ISBN0 9594164 4 7
^When Chrysler stopped manufacturing in Adelaide,Mitsubishi Motors Australia took over theTonsley Park factory. After many years of mixed fortunes, Mitsubishi ceased manufacturing at Tonsley Park on 27 March 2008.
^"City Tram Extension".dpti.sa.gov.au. Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure. Archived fromthe original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved20 November 2019.
^Veevers, J. J.; Walter, M. R.; Scheibner, E. (1997). "Neoproterozoic Tectonics of Australia-Antarctica and Laurentia and the 560 Ma Birth of the Pacific Ocean Reflect the 400 M.Y. Pangean Supercycle".The Journal of Geology.105 (2):225–242.Bibcode:1997JG....105..225V.doi:10.1086/515914.ISSN0022-1376.S2CID140652348.
^Lindsay J.M. & Alley, N.F. (1995): St Vincent Basin. In: Drexel, J.F. & Preiss, W.V. (Eds.)The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. pp. 163–171. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54.ISBN0 7308 0621 9
^Callan, R.A., Sheard, M.J., Benbow, M.C. & Belperio, A.P. (1995): Alluvial fans and piedmont slope deposits. In: Drexel, J.F. & Preiss, W.V. (Eds.)The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. pp. 241–242. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54.ISBN0 7308 0621 9
^Belperio, A.P. (1995): Coastal and marine sequences. In: Drexel, J.F. & Preiss, W.V. (Eds.)The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. pp. 220–240. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54.ISBN0 7308 0621 9
^Page, M. (1981):Port Adelaide and its Institute, 1851–1979. Rigby Publishers Ltd. Pp.17–20.ISBN0-7270-1510-9
^Gibbs, R.M. (2013):Under the burning sun: a history of colonial South Australia, 1836–1900. Peacock Publications. Pp. 58, 333–4.ISBN978-1-921601-85-9
^abcRosemary Cadden:Building South Australia: celebrating 125 years. Solstice Media. pp. 77, 87.ISBN978-0-646-51343-0
^Sheard, M. J., & A. P. Belperio (1995): "Problem soils". In: Drexel, J. F. & Preiss, W. V. (eds.)The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. p. 274. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54.ISBN978-0-7308-0621-9
^Tapper, Andrew; Tapper, Nigel (1996). Gray, Kathleen (ed.).The weather and climate of Australia and New Zealand (First ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. p. 300.ISBN0-19-553393-3.
^Fletcher, Andrew (4 March 2014)."Novocastrians Crave Change".Australian Property Council.Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved29 April 2019.
^Capital City Committee Government of South Australia, Department of the Premier and Cabinet. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
^Salt, Bernard (27 March 2011)."Adelaide's European twin".Sunday Mail. Adelaide:News Limited.Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved16 April 2011.[...] the Adelaideans could withdraw to vantage points within the city centre [...]
^"On your bike, Adelaide".Adelaidean. Adelaide:University of Adelaide. 2015.Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved7 March 2016.It could be argued that Adelaideans are easily influenced by all things wheels [...]
^Zysk, Ania (2005)."Network Mawson Lakes: International and Local Links"(PDF).Isana Conference Proceedings. p. 2. Retrieved10 May 2024.There are around 5 147 students and approximately 1 400 of those are international students.
^"The Jewish Community of Adelaide".Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved22 July 2018.
^abReal Estate Institute of South Australia (REISA)
^"Median House Prices – REISA".The Real Estate Institute of South Australia (REISA). 23 August 2023.Archived from the original on 3 December 2012. Retrieved23 August 2023.
^Edwards, Verity (3 May 2008). "Education attracts record numbers".The Weekend Australian.
^Broadstock, Amelia (6 May 2015). "International Uni student numbers a billion dollar boom for Adelaide".The City Messenger.
^"200 new Wi-Fi locations across city". Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure, Government of South Australia. 25 June 2014. Retrieved16 March 2020.
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