For other people with similar names, seeAbd al-Hamid.
You can helpexpand this article with text translated fromthe corresponding article in Turkish. (November 2023)Click [show] for important translation instructions.
Machine translation, likeDeepL orGoogle Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia.
Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
Youmust providecopyright attribution in theedit summary accompanying your translation by providing aninterlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary isContent in this edit is translated from the existing Turkish Wikipedia article at [[:tr:II. Abdülhamid]]; see its history for attribution.
You may also add the template{{Translated|tr|II. Abdülhamid}} to thetalk page.
In 1878, Abdul Hamid consolidated his rule by suspending both the constitution and theparliament,[4]purging the Young Ottomans [tr], and curtailing the power of theSublime Porte. He ruled as an autocrat for three decades. Ideologically anIslamist, the sultan asserted his title ofCaliph to Muslims around the world. His paranoia about being overthrown, like hisuncle andhalf-brother, led to the creation of secret police organizations, such as theYıldız Intelligence Agency and theUmur-u Hafiye, and a censorship regime. The Ottoman Empire's modernization and centralization continued during his reign, including reform of the bureaucracy, extension of theRumelia Railway and theAnatolia Railway, and construction of theBaghdad Railway and theHejaz Railway with German assistance. Systems for population registration,sedentarizationof tribal groups, and control over the press were part of a uniqueimperialist system in fringe provinces known asborrowed colonialism.[5] The farthest-reaching reforms were in education through the establishment of many professional schools and a network of primary, secondary, and military schools throughout the Empire.[4]
Abdul Hamid has been long vilified as areactionary "Red Sultan" for his tyrannical leadership and condoning of atrocities. It was initial consensus that his personal rule created an era of stagnation which held the Ottoman Empire back from the otherwise dynamicBelle Époque. Recent assessments have highlighted his promotion of education and public works projects, his reign a culmination and advancement of theTanzimat reforms. Since theAKP's rise to power, scholars have attributed a resurgence in his personality cult an attempt to checkMustafa Kemal Atatürk's established image as the founder of modernTurkey.[8][9][10][11]
Unlike many other Ottoman sultans, Abdul Hamid II visited distant countries. In the summer of 1867, nine years before he ascended the throne, he accompanied his uncle SultanAbdul Aziz on a visit toParis (30 June – 10 July 1867),London (12–23 July 1867),Vienna (28–30 July 1867), and capitals or cities of a number of other European countries.[16]
Abdul Hamid ascended the throne after his brotherMurad was deposed on 31 August 1876.[1][17] At his accession, some commentators were impressed that he rode practically unattended to theEyüp Sultan Mosque, where he was presented with theSword of Osman. Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to support liberal movements, but he acceded to the throne at acritical time. Economic and political turmoil, local wars in the Balkans, and theRusso-Turkish War threatened the Empire's very existence.
Abdul Hamid worked with theYoung Ottomans to realize some form of constitutional arrangement.[18] This new form could help bring about a liberal transition with an Islamic provenance. The Young Ottomans believed that the modern parliamentary system was a restatement of the practice of consultation, orshura, that had existed in early Islam.[19]
In December 1876, due to the1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the ongoingwar with Serbia andMontenegro, and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the 1876Bulgarian rebellion, Abdul Hamid promulgated a constitution and a parliament.[1]Midhat Pasha headed the commission to establish a new constitution, and the cabinet passed the constitution on 6 December 1876, allowing for abicameral legislature withsenatorial appointments made by the sultan. The first everelection in the Ottoman Empire was held in 1877. Crucially, the constitution gave Abdul Hamid the right to exile anyone he deemed a threat to the state.[20]
The delegates to theConstantinople Conference[21][22] were surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but European powers at the conference rejected the constitution as a too-radical change; they preferred the 1856 constitution (Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümâyûnu) or the 1839 Gülhane edict (Hatt-ı Şerif), and questioned whether a parliament was necessary to act as an official voice of the people.
In any event, like many other would-be reforms of the Ottoman Empire, it proved nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war, and early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with theRussian Empire.
Abdul Hamid's biggest fear, near dissolution, was realized with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies. Russian chancellorPrince Gorchakov had by that time effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with theReichstadt Agreement. The British Empire, though still fearing the Russian threat to theBritish presence in India, did not involve itself in the conflict because of public opinion against the Ottomans, following reports of Ottoman brutality in putting down the Bulgarian uprising. Russia's victory was quick; the conflict ended in February 1878. TheTreaty of San Stefano, signed at the end of the war, imposed harsh terms: the Ottoman Empire gave independence toRomania, Serbia, and Montenegro; it granted autonomy to Bulgaria; instituted reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina; and ceded parts ofDobrudzha to Romania and parts ofArmenia to Russia, which was also paid an enormous indemnity. After the war, Abdul Hamid suspended the constitution in February 1878 and dismissed the parliament, after its only meeting, in March 1877. For the next three decades, Abdul Hamid ruled the Ottoman Empire fromYıldız Palace.[1]
As Russia could dominate the newly independent states, the Treaty of San Stefano greatly increased its influence inSoutheastern Europe. At the Great Powers' insistence (especially the United Kingdom's), the treaty was revised at theCongress of Berlin so as to reduce the great advantages Russia gained. In exchange for these favors,Cyprus was cededto Britain in 1878. There were troubles in Egypt, where a discreditedkhedive had to be deposed. Abdul Hamid mishandled relations withUrabi Pasha, and as a result, Britain gainedde facto control overEgypt andSudan by sending its troops in 1882 to establish control over the two provinces. Cyprus, Egypt, and Sudan ostensibly remained Ottoman provinces until 1914, when Britain officially annexed them in response to the Ottoman participation inWorld War I on the side of theCentral Powers.[citation needed]
Abdul Hamid's distrust of the reformist admirals of theOttoman Navy (whom he suspected of plotting against him and trying to restore the constitution) and his subsequent decision to lock the Ottoman fleet (the world's third-largest fleet during the reign of his predecessorAbdul Aziz) inside theGolden Horn indirectly caused the loss of Ottoman overseas territories and islands in North Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean Sea during and after his reign.[23]
Financial difficulties forced him to consent to foreign control over theOttoman national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, a large portion of the empire's revenues were handed over to thePublic Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders (seeOttoman Decree of 1296).
The 1885union of Bulgaria withEastern Rumelia was another blow to the Empire. The creation of an independent and powerful Bulgaria was viewed as a serious threat to the Empire. For many years Abdul Hamid had to deal with Bulgaria in a way that did not antagonize the Russians or the Germans. There were also key problems regarding theAlbanian question resulting from the AlbanianLeague of Prizren and with theGreek and Montenegrin frontiers, where the European powers were determined that theBerlin Congress's decisions be carried out.
Crete was granted "extended privileges", but these did not satisfy the population, which sought unification withGreece. In early 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to Crete to overthrow Ottoman rule on the island. This act was followed by theGreco-Turkish War, in which the Ottoman Empire defeated Greece, but as a result of theTreaty of Constantinople, Crete was taken overen depot by the United Kingdom, France, and Russia.Prince George of Greece was appointed ruler and Crete was effectively lost to the Ottoman Empire.[1] TheʿAmmiyya, a revolt in 1889–90 amongDruze and otherSyrians against excesses of the local sheikhs, similarly led to capitulation to the rebels' demands, as well as concessions toBelgian andFrench companies to providea railroad between Beirut and Damascus.
Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer.[24] Despite working with the reformistYoung Ottomans while still crown prince and appearing to be a liberal leader, he became increasingly conservative after taking the throne. In a process known asİstibdad, Abdul Hamid reduced his ministers to acting as secretaries and concentrated much of the Empire's administration into his own hands. Default in the public funds, an empty treasury, the1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina, thewar with Serbia andMontenegro, the result ofRusso-Turkish war, and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by Abdul Hamid's government in stamping outthe Bulgarian rebellion all contributed to his apprehension regarding enacting significant changes.[24]
His push for education resulted in the establishment of 18 professional schools; and in 1900,Darülfünûn-u Şahâne, now known asIstanbul University, was established.[1] He also created a large system of primary, secondary, and military schools throughout the empire.[1] 51 secondary schools were constructed in a 12-year period (1882–1894). As the goal of the educational reforms in the Hamidian era were to counter foreign influence, these secondary schools used European teaching techniques while instilling in students a strong sense ofOttoman identity and Islamic morality.[25]
Abdul Hamid also reorganized theMinistry of Justice and developed rail and telegraph systems.[1] The telegraph system was expanded to incorporate the furthest parts of the Empire. Railways connected Constantinople and Vienna by 1883, and shortly afterward theOrient Express connected Paris to Constantinople. During his rule, railways within the Ottoman Empire expanded to connect Ottoman-controlled Europe and Anatolia with Constantinople as well. The increased ability to travel and communicate within the Ottoman Empire served to strengthen Constantinople's influence over the rest of the Empire.[25]
Abdul Hamid took stringent measures regarding his security. The memory of the deposition ofAbdul Aziz was on his mind and convinced him that a constitutional government was not a good idea. Because of this, information was tightly controlled and the press rigidly censored. A secret police (Umur-u Hafiye) and a network of informants was present throughout the empire, and many leading figures of theSecond Constitutional Era and Ottoman successor states were arrested or exiled. School curricula were closely inspected to prevent dissidence. Ironically, the schools that Abdul Hamid founded and tried to control became "breeding grounds of discontent" as students and teachers alike chafed at the censors' clumsy restrictions.[27]
20kuruş during the reign of Abdul Hamid II, dating 1877
Starting around 1890, Armenians began demanding implementation of the reforms promised to them at theBerlin Conference.[28] To prevent such measures, in 1890–91 Abdul Hamid gave semi-official status to the bandits who were already actively mistreating theArmenians in the provinces. Made up of Kurds and other ethnic groups such asTurcomans, and armed by the state, they came to be called theHamidiye Alayları ("Hamidian Regiments").[29] The Hamidiye and Kurdish brigands were given free rein to attack Armenians – confiscating stores of grain, foodstuffs, and driving off livestock – confident of escaping punishment as they were subject only to court-martial.[30] In the face of such violence, the Armenians established revolutionary organizations: theSocial Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchak; founded in Switzerland in 1887) and theArmenian Revolutionary Federation (the ARF or Dashnaktsutiun, founded in 1890 inTiflis).[31] Unrest ensued and clashes occurred in 1892 atMerzifon and in 1893 atTokat. Abdul Hamid put these revolts down with harsh methods.[32] As a result, 300,000 Armenians were killed in what became known as theHamidian massacres. News of the massacres was widely reported in Europe and the United States and drew strong responses from foreign governments and humanitarian organizations.[33] Abdul Hamid was called the "Bloody Sultan" or "Red Sultan" in the West. On 21 July 1905, the Armenian Revolutionary Federationattempted to assassinate him with a car bomb during a public appearance, but he was delayed for a minute, and the bomb went off too early, killing 26, wounding 58 (four of whom died during their treatment in hospital), and destroying 17 cars. This continued aggression, along with the handling of the Armenian desire for reform, led western European powers to take a more hands-on approach with the Turks.[1] Abdul Hamid survived an attempted stabbing in 1904 as well.
An example of what once hung on the Door of Repentance of the Ka'ba in 1897 until 1898. It was made in Egypt under Abdul Hamid II's ruling of the Ottoman Empire. His name is stitched into the fifth line following a verse from the Qur'an.[34]
Abdul Hamid did not believe that theTanzimat movement could succeed in helping the disparate peoples of the empire achieve a common identity, such asOttomanism. He adopted a new ideological principle,Pan-Islamism; since, beginning in 1517, Ottoman sultans were also nominally Caliphs, he wanted to promote that fact and emphasized theOttoman Caliphate. Given the great diversity of ethnicities in the Ottoman Empire, he believed thatIslam was the only way to unite his people.
Pan-Islamism encouraged Muslims living under European powers to unite under one polity. This threatened several European countries:Austria throughBosnian Muslims;Russia throughTatars andKurds;France andSpain throughMoroccan Muslims; andBritain throughIndian Muslims.[35] Foreigners' privileges in the Ottoman Empire, which were an obstacle to effective government, were curtailed. At the very end of his reign, Abdul Hamid finally provided funds to start construction of the strategically importantConstantinople-Baghdad Railway and theConstantinople-Medina Railway, which would ease the trip to Mecca for theHajj; after he was deposed, the CUP accelerated and completed construction of both railways. Missionaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and theCaliph's supremacy.[36] During his rule, Abdul Hamid refusedTheodor Herzl's offers to pay down a substantial portion of the Ottoman debt (150 million pounds sterling in gold) in exchange for a charter allowing theZionists to settle inPalestine. He is famously quoted as telling Herzl's Emissary, "as long as I am alive, I will not have our body divided; only our corpse they can divide."[37]
Pan-Islamism was a considerable success. After theGreco-Ottoman war, many Muslims celebrated the Ottoman victory as their victory. Uprisings, lockouts, and objections to European colonization in newspapers were reported in Muslim regions after the war.[35][38] But Abdul Hamid's appeals to Muslim sentiment were not always very effective, due to widespread disaffection within the Empire. InMesopotamia andYemen, disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Muslim population only by a system of deflation and espionage[citation needed].
Map of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Abdul Hamid II
In 1898, U.S.Secretary of StateJohn Hay asked United States Minister to the Ottoman EmpireOscar Straus to request that Abdul Hamid, in his capacity ascaliph, write a letter to theSulu Muslims, aMoro subgroup, of theSulu Sultanate in the Philippines, ordering them not to join theMoro Rebellion and submit to American suzerainty and American military rule. The Sultan obliged the Americans and wrote the letter, which was sent to Mecca, whence two Sulu chiefs brought it to Sulu. It was successful, since the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty."[39][40][41][42][43][44]
Despite Abdul Hamid's "pan-Islamic" ideology, he had readily acceded to Straus's request for help in telling the Sulu Muslims to not resist America, since he felt no need to cause hostilities between the West and Muslims.[45] Collaboration between the American military and Sulu Sultanate was due to the Ottoman Sultan persuading the Sulu Sultan.[46] John P. Finley wrote:
After due consideration of these facts, the Sultan, as Caliph caused a message to be sent to the Mohammedans of the Philippine Islands forbidding them to enter into any hostilities against the Americans, inasmuch as no interference with their religion would be allowed under American rule. As the Moros have never asked more than that, it is not surprising, that they refused all overtures made, by Aguinaldo's agents, at the time of the Filipino insurrection. President McKinley sent a personal letter of thanks to Mr. Straus for the excellent work he had done, and said, its accomplishment had saved the United States at least twenty thousand troops in the field.[47][48]
President McKinley did not mention the Ottoman role in the pacification of the Sulu Moros in his address to the first session of the Fifty-sixth Congress in December 1899, since the agreement with the Sultan of Sulu was not submitted to the Senate until 18 December.[49] The Bates Treaty, which the Americans signed with the Moro Sulu Sultanate, and whichguaranteed the Sultanate's autonomy in its internal affairs and governance, was thenviolated by the Americans, who then invaded Moroland,[50] causing theMoro Rebellion to break out in 1904, with war raging between the Americans and Moro Muslims and atrocities committed against Moro Muslim women and children, such as theMoro Crater Massacre.
Abdul Hamid II attempted to correspond with theChinese Muslim troops in service of the Qing imperial army serving under GeneralDong Fuxiang; they were also known as theKansu Braves.
TheTriple Entente – the United Kingdom, France andRussia – had strained relations with the Ottoman Empire. Abdul Hamid and his close advisors believed the Empire should be treated as an equal player by these great powers. In the Sultan's view, the Ottoman Empire was a European empire that was distinguished by having more Muslims than Christians.
Over time, the hostile diplomatic attitudes of France (the occupation ofTunisia in 1881) and Great Britain (the 1882 establishment of de facto control inEgypt) caused Abdul Hamid to gravitate towards Germany.[1] Abdul Hamid twice hostedKaiser Wilhelm II in Istanbul, on 21 October 1889 and on5 October 1898. (Wilhelm II later visited Constantinople a third time, on 15 October 1917, as a guest ofMehmed V.) German officers such asBaron von der Goltz and Bodo-Borries von Ditfurth were employed to oversee the organization of theOttoman Army.
German government officials were brought in to reorganize the Ottoman government's finances. The German emperor was also rumored to have counseled Abdul Hamid in his controversial decision to appoint his third son as his successor.[51] Germany's friendship was not altruistic; it had to be fostered by railway and loan concessions. In 1899, a significant German wish, the construction of aBerlin-Baghdad railway, was granted.[1]
Kaiser Wilhelm II also requested the Sultan's help when he had trouble with Chinese Muslim troops. During theBoxer Rebellion, the Chinese MuslimKansu Braves fought the German Army, routing them and the other Eight Nation Alliance forces. The Muslim Kansu Braves and Boxers defeated the Alliance forces led by the German CaptainGuido von Usedom at theBattle of Langfang during theSeymour Expedition, in 1900, and besieged the trapped Alliance forces during theSiege of the International Legations. It was only on the second attempt, in theGasalee Expedition, that the Alliance forces managed to get through to battle the Chinese Muslim troops at theBattle of Peking. Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested that Abdul Hamid find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. Abdul Hamid agreed to Wilhelm's demands and sentHasan Enver Pasha (no relation tothe Young Turk leader) to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time.[52] Because the Ottomans did not want conflict with the European nations and because the Ottoman Empire was ingratiating itself to gain German assistance, an order imploring Chinese Muslims to avoid assisting the Boxers was issued by the Ottoman Khalifa and reprinted in Egyptian and Muslim Indian newspapers.[53]
Abdul Hamid II made many enemies in the Ottoman Empire. His reign featured several coup d'état plans and many rebellions. The Sultan triumphed in a challenge byKâmil Pasha of absolute rule in 1895. A large conspiracy by theCommittee of Union and Progress was also foiled during the1896 Ottoman coup d'état attempt. His ascendancy finally ended in arevolution in 1908, and his reign for good ended with the31 March Incident. These conspiracies were primarily driven by members of the Ottoman government due to dissatisfaction with autocracy. Journalists had to contend with a strict censorship regime, while the intelligentsia chafed under the surveillance of intelligence agencies. It was in this context that a broad opposition movement to the sultan emerged, known as theYoung Turks to European observers. Most Young Turks were ambitious military officers, constitutionalists, and bureaucrats of theSublime Porte.
With state policy fostering an Islamist Ottomanism, Christian minority groups also began to turn against the government, going so far as to advocate for separatism. By the 1890s, Greek, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Aromanian militant groups started fighting Ottoman authorities, and each other, in theMacedonian conflict. Using theİdare-i Örfiyye, a clause in the defunct Ottoman constitution comparable to declaring astate of siege, the government suspendedcivil rights in theOttoman Balkans.İdare-i Örfiyye was also soon declared inEastern Anatolia to more effectively prosecutefedayi. The statute persisted under the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey until the 1940s.[54]
Educated Muslim women resented theSalafistHatts that mandated veils be worn outside the home and to be accompanied by men, though these decrees were mostly ignored.[55]
The national humiliation of theMacedonian conflict, together with the resentment in the army against the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.[36] TheCommittee of Union and Progress (CUP), aYoung Turks organization that was especially influential in the Rumelian army units, undertook theYoung Turk Revolution in the summer of 1908. Upon learning that the troops inSalonica were marching on Istanbul (23 July), Abdul Hamid capitulated. On 24 July anirade announced the restoration of the suspendedconstitution of 1876; the next day, furtherirades abolished espionage and censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners.[36]
On 17 December, Abdul Hamid reopened theGeneral Assembly with aspeech from the throne in which he said that the first parliament had been "temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."[36]
Abdul Hamid II's last ride through the streets of Istanbul after the 31 March Incident
Abdul Hamid's new attitude did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the state's powerful reactionary elements, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude toward the counter-revolution of 13 April 1909, known as the31 March Incident, when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative upheaval in some parts of the military in the capital overthrewHüseyin Hilmi Pasha's government. With the Young Turks driven out of the capital, Abdul Hamid appointedAhmet Tevfik Pasha in his place, and once again suspended the constitution and shuttered the parliament. But the Sultan controlled only Constantinople, while the Unionists were still influential in the rest of the army and provinces. The CUP appealed toMahmud Şevket Pasha to restore the status quo. Şevket Pasha organized anad hoc formation known as theAction Army, which marched on Constantinople. Şevket Pasha's chief of staff was captainMustafa Kemal. The Action Army stopped first inAya Stefanos, and negotiated with the rival government established by deputies who escaped from the capital, which was led byMehmed Talat. It was secretly decided there that Abdul Hamid must be deposed. When the Action Army entered Istanbul, afatwa was issued condemning Abdul Hamid, and the parliament voted to dethrone him. On 27 April, Abdul Hamid's half-brother Reshad Efendi was proclaimed as SultanMehmed V.[24]
The Sultan's countercoup, which had appealed to conservative Islamists against the Young Turks' liberal reforms, resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Christian Armenians in the Adana province, known as theAdana massacre.[56]
Abdul Hamid was conveyed into captivity at Salonica (nowThessaloniki),[36] mostly at theVilla Allatini in the city's southern outskirts. In 1912, when Salonica fell to Greece, he was returned to captivity in Constantinople. He spent his last days studying, practicing carpentry, and writing his memoirs in custody atBeylerbeyi Palace in theBosphorus, in the company of his wives and children. He died there in 1918.
In 1930, his nine widows and thirteen children were granted $50 million from his estate after a lawsuit that lasted five years. His estate was worth $1.5 billion.[57]
Abdul Hamid was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire to hold absolute power. He presided over 33 years of decline, during which other European countries regarded the empire as the "sick man of Europe".[58]
The tomb of theLibyan Sufi Sheikh Muhammad Zafir al-Madani in Istanbul who initiated the Sultan into theShadhiliSufi Order
Abdul Hamid II was a skilled carpenter and personally crafted some high-quality furniture, which can be seen at theYıldız Palace,Şale Köşkü, andBeylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. He was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many classic operas. He also composed several opera pieces for theMızıka-yı Hümâyun (Ottoman Imperial Band/Orchestra, established by his grandfatherMahmud II who had appointedDonizetti Pasha as its Instructor General in 1828), and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yıldız Palace, which was restored in the 1990s and featured in the 1999 filmHarem Suare (it begins with a scene of Abdul Hamid watching a performance). One of his guests was the French stage actressSarah Bernhardt, who performed for audiences.[59]
Abdul Hamid was also a good wrestler atYağlı güreş and a "patron saint" of the wrestlers. He organized wrestling tournaments in the empire, and selected wrestlers were invited to the palace. Abdul Hamid personally tried the sportsmen, and good ones remained in the palace. He was also skilled at drawing, having drawn the sole known portrait of his fourth wife,Bidar Kadın. He was extremely fond ofSherlock Holmes novels,[60] and awarded their author,Arthur Conan Doyle, theOrder of the Medjidie, 2nd-Class, in 1907.[61]
Bilgi University professor Suraiya Farooqi stated that the sultan's "tastes were distinctlyVerdi" despite his political rule being "conservative".[62]
Depiction of a British politician as Abdul Hamid II
It was rumored that Abdul Hamid always carried a pistol on his person at all times. In addition to locking the Ottoman Navy in the Golden Horn, he also did not allow the army to train with live ammunition.[63]
Abdul Hamid practiced traditional IslamicSufism. He was influenced by the LibyanShadhili Madani Sheikh, Muhammad Zafir al-Madani, whose lessons he attended in disguise in Unkapani before he became sultan. After he ascended the throne, Abdul Hamid asked al-Madani to return to Istanbul. Al-Madani initiated Shadhili gatherings of remembrance (dhikr) in the newly commissionedYıldız Hamidiye Mosque; on Thursday evenings he accompaniedSufi masters in reciting dhikr.[59] He also became a close religious and political confidant of the sultan. In 1879, the sultan forgave the taxes of all of the Caliphate's Madani Sufi lodges (also known aszawiyas andtekkes). In 1888, he even established a Sufi lodge for the Madani order of Shadhili Sufism in Istanbul, which he commissioned as part of theErtuğrul Tekke mosque. The relationship of the sultan and the sheik lasted for 30 years, until the latter's death in 1903.[64]
A sample of his handwritten poetry inPersian language and scripts, which was taken from the bookMy Father Abdul Hameed, written by his daughter Ayşe Sultan
Abdul Hamid wrote poetry, following in the footsteps of many other Ottoman sultans. One of his poems translates thus:
My Lord I know you are the Dear One (Al-Aziz) ... And no one but you are the Dear One You are the One, and nothing else My God take my hand in these hard times My God be my helper in this critical hour
He was a striking amalgam of determination and timidity, of insight and fantasy, held together by immense practical caution and an instinct for the fundamentals of power. He was frequently underestimated. Judged on his record, he was a formidable domestic politician and an effective diplomat.[66]
Abdul Hamid had numerous consorts, but allowed none of them to have political influence; in the same way he did not allow his adoptive mother,Rahime Perestu Sultan, or other female members of his family to have such influence, though some of them still had some degree of power in private or in the daily life of the harem. The only, partial exception wasCemile Sultan, his half-sister and adoptive sister. He was convinced that his predecessors' reigns, especially those of his uncleAbdülaziz and his fatherAbdülmecid I, had been ruined by the excessive meddling of the women of the imperial family in affairs of state.
Nazikeda Kadın (1848 – 11 April 1895).BaşKadin (First Consort). She was an Abkhazian princess, born Mediha Hanim, lady-in-waiting toCemile Sultan. She died prematurely after years of deep depression, due to the death of her only daughter.
Safinaz Nurefsun Kadın (1850–1915). Her real name was Ayşe and she was the younger sister of the last consort ofAbdülmecid I,Yıldız Hanım. When Yıldız Hanım married Abdülmecid, Ayşe was sent into the service ofŞehzade Abdülaziz, where she was renamed Safinaz. According to Harun Açba, Abdülaziz was fascinated by her beauty and wanted to marry her, but she refused because she was in love with Şehzade Abdul Hamid. The feeling was mutual and the young prince asked for the help of his stepmotherRahime Perestu Kadin. She told Abdülaziz that Safinaz was ill and that she needed a change of air; later, Abdülaziz was informed of her death. Abdul Hamid then secretly married Safinaz, who was renamed Nurefsun, in October 1868. However, she could not get used to life in theharem and wanted to be Abdul Hamid's only consort. She then asked for a divorce, which was granted to her in 1879. She had no children.
Bedrifelek Kadın (1851–1930). Circassian Princess who took refuge inIstanbul when Russia invaded theCaucasus. She ruled Abdul Hamid's harem whenRahime Perestu Sultan died. She left Abdul Hamid when he was deposed, perhaps disappointed that their son had not been chosen as successor. She had two sons and a daughter.
Bidar Kadın (5 May 1855 – 13 January 1918).Kabartian princess, she was considered the most beautiful and charming of Abdul Hamid's consorts. She had a son and a daughter.
Dilpesend Kadın (16 January 1865 – 17 June 1901).Georgian. She was educated byTiryal Hanim, the last consort ofMahmud II, who was Abdul Hamid's grandfather. She had two daughters.
Mezidemestan Kadın (3 March 1869 – 21 January 1909). She was born Kadriye Kamile Merve Hanim, she was the aunt ofEmine Nazikeda Kadın, future consort ofMehmed VI. She was loved by everyone, including his other consorts and her stepchildren. She was the most influential of his consorts, but she never abused her power. She had a son, who was Abdul Hamid's favorite.
Emsalinur Kadın (1866–1952). She entered the Palace with her sister Tesrid Hanım, who became a consort ofŞehzade Ibrahim Tevfik. She was very beautiful. She did not follow Abdul Hamid into exile and died in poverty. She had a daughter.
Destizer Müşfika Kadın (1872 – 18 July 1961). She was Abkhazian, born Ayşe Hanim. She grew up with her sister under the tutelage ofPertevniyal Sultan, the mother ofSultanAbdülaziz, uncle of Abdul Hamid. She followed Abdul Hamid into exile and was with him until his death, so much so that it is said that the sultan died in her arms. She had a daughter.
Sazkar Hanım (8 May 1873 – 1945). She was a noble Abkhazian, born Fatma Zekiye Hanım. She was among the consorts who followed Abdul Hamid into exile, and later left Turkey with her one daughter.
Peyveste Hanım (1873 – 1943). Abkhazian princess, born Hatice Rabia Hanim and aunt ofLeyla Açba. She served Nazikeda Kadın, with her sisters, and then became the treasurer of the harem. She was highly respected. She followed her husband into exile and then her one son.
Pesend Hanım (13 February 1876 – 5 November 1924). Born princess Fatma Kadriye Achba, she was one of Abdul Hamid's favorite consorts, and was known for her kindness, charity, and tolerance. She was one of the consorts who stayed with Abdul Hamid until his death; and, on his death, she cut her hair and threw it into the sea as a sign of mourning. She had a daughter.
Behice Hanım (10 October 1882 – 22 October 1969). She was Sazkar Hanım's cousin and her real name was Behiye Hanim. She was arrogant and proud, initially she had to marry Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin, son of Abdul Hamid, but in the end the sultan decided to marry her himself, against Behice's will. She had two twin sons.
Saliha Naciye Kadın (1887–1923). She was born Zeliha Ankuap and was also called Atike Naciye Kadın. Known for her kindness and modesty, she was Abdul Hamid's favorite among the consorts who stayed with him until his death. She had a son and a daughter.
Şehzade Mehmed Selim (11 January 1870 – 5 May 1937) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. He did not get along with his father. He had eight consorts, two sons and a daughter.
Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (16 January 1878 – 16 March 1944) – with Bidar Kadın. He had seven consorts, five sons and two daughters.
Şehzade Ahmed Nuri (12 February 1878 – 7 August 1944) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. He had a consort but no children.
Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (19 December 1885 – 15 June 1949) – with Mezidemestan Kadın. He had four consorts and two sons.
Şehzade Abdürrahim Hayri (15 August 1894 – 1 January 1952) – with Peyveste Hanım. He had two consorts, a son, and a daughter.
Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin (June 22, 1901 – December 1944) – with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin. He had a consort and a son.
Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin (22 June 1901 – 13 October 1903) – with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin. Born inYıldız Palace. He died of meningitis and was buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
Şehzade Mehmed Abid (May 17, 1905 – December 8, 1973) – with Saliha Naciye Kadın. He had two consorts but no children.
Ulviye Sultan (1868 – 5 October 1875) – with Nazikeda Kadın. Born inDolmabahçe Palace, she died at the age of seven: while her mother played the piano and the servants were dismissed for their meal, Ulviye Sultan began to play with some matches. Her dress caught fire and her gold belt trapped her inside it, even though her mother burned her hands trying to unhook it. In panic, Nazikeda picked up her daughter and ran down the stairs, screaming for help, but the movement fueled the flames and Ulviye Sultan died burnt alive, leaving her mother in despair from which she never recovered. Nazikeda was buried in theYeni Cami.
Zekiye Sultan (12 January 1872 – 13 July 1950) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. She married once and had two daughters. She was one of Abdul Hamid's favorite daughters.
Fatma Naime Sultan (5 September 1876 – 1945) – with Bidar Kadın. She is the favorite daughter of Abdul Hamid, who called her "my accession daughter", because she was born close to the date of his accession to the throne. She married twice and had a son and a daughter. In 1904 she was embroiled in a scandal when she discovered that her first husband was cheating on her with her cousinHatice Sultan, daughter ofMurad V.
Naile Sultan (9 February 1884 – 25 October 1957) – with Dilpesend Kadın. She married once, with no children.
Seniye Sultan (1884 – 1884) – unknown motherhood.
Seniha Sultan (1885 – 1885) – with Dilpesend Kadın. She died at five months.
Şadiye Sultan (30 November 1886 – 20 November 1977) – with Emsalinur Kadın. She married twice and had a daughter.
Hamide Ayşe Sultan (15 November 1887 – 10 August 1960) – with Müşfika Kadın. She was married twice and had three sons and a daughter.
Refia Sultan (15 June 1891 – 1938) – with Sazkar Hanım. She married once and had two daughters.
Hatice Sultan (10 July 1897 – 14 February 1898) – with Pesend Hanım. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
Aliye Sultan (1900 – 1900) – unknown motherhood. She died a few days after her birth.
Cemile Sultan (1900 – 1900) – unknown maternity. She died a few days after her birth.
Samiye Sultan (16 January 1908 – 24 January 1909) – with Saliha Naciye Kadın. She died of pneumonia and was buried in themausoleumŞehzade Ahmed Kemaleddin in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
Abdul the Damned (1935) portrays a time near the end of the sultan's life.
Barry Unsworth's historical novelThe Rage of the Vulture (1982) portrays the paranoia of Abdul Hamid's at the twilight of his sultanate (May 1908 onwards)
InDon Rosa's comic book story "The Treasury of Croesus",Scrooge McDuck pulls out a permit which Abdul Hamid II signed in 1905, allowing McDuckcarte blanche to excavate the ancient ruins ofEphesus.
Payitaht Abdulhamid, named 'The Last Emperor' in English, is a Turkish popular historical television drama series depicting the last 13 years of the reign of Abdul Hamid II.[75]
InOrhan Pamuk's satirical novelNights of Plague (2021), Abdul Hamid dispatches the Ottoman Empire's chief inspector of public health, along with a Muslim epidemiologist and his wife, the sultan's niece, to the fictitious island of Mingheria to combat the bubonic plague.
Civilization V: Brave New World features Abdul Hamid II as the leader of the Ottoman Empire during the Scramble for Africa scenario.
Threatened by several assassination attempts, Abdul Hamid II did not travel often (though still more than many previous rulers). Photographs provided visual evidence of what took place in his realm. He commissioned thousands of photographs of his empire, including from the Constantinople studio ofJean Pascal Sébah. The sultan presented large gift albums of photographs to various governments and heads of state, including the U.S.[90] and Great Britain.[91] The American collection is housed in theLibrary of Congress and has been digitized.[92]
^Eldem, Edhem (Fall 2018). "Sultan Abdülhamid II: Founding Father of the Turkish State?".Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association.5 (2):25–46.doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.5.2.05.
^Freely, John –Inside the Seraglio, published 1999, Chapter 15: On the Shores of the Bosphorus
^Brookes, Douglas Scott (2010).The Concubine, the Princess, and the Teacher: Voices from the Ottoman Harem. University of Texas Press. p. 134.ISBN978-0-292-78335-5.
^The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol.7, Edited by Hugh Chisholm, (1911), 3;Constantinople, the capital of the Turkish Empire
^Britannica, IstanbulArchived 18 December 2007 at theWayback Machine:When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, the capital was moved to Ankara, and Constantinople was officially renamed Istanbul in 1930.
^Klein, Janet (2011).The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone. Stanford: Stanford University Press, pp. 21–34.
^McDowall, David (2004).A Modern History of the Kurds (3rd rev. and updated ed.) London: I.B. Tauris, pp. 60–62.
^Nalbandian, Louise (1963).The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press.
^Rodogno, Davide.Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815–1914.Princeton University Press, 2012, pp. 185–211; Gary J. Bass,Freedom's Battle: The Origins of Humanitarian Intervention. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008; Balakian,The Burning Tigris
^"עניין היהודים", (יומני הרצל). הוצאת מוסד ביאליק. p. 332.את הדברים אמר הסולטאן לשליחו של הרצל (נוולינסקי) ב-19 ביוני 1896. מקור - "עניין היהודים", (יומני הרצל) - הוצאת מוסד ביאליק, כרך א' עמוד 332. הרצל עצמו נפגש עם הסולטאן רק ב-17 במאי 1901, ללא הישגים נוספים.
^Lewis.B, "The Emergence of Modern Turkey" Oxford, 1962, p. 337
^Renée Worringer (2004). "Sickman of Europe or Japan of the Near East?: Constructing Ottoman Modernity in the Hamidian and Young Turk Eras".International Journal of Middle East Studies.36 (2): 209.doi:10.1017/S0020743804362033.S2CID156657393.
^"Ritter-Orden",Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie, 1900, p. 58,archived from the original on 13 July 2020, retrieved22 May 2020
^"Schwarzer Adler-orden".Königlich Preussische Ordensliste (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin: General-Ordenskommission. 1886. p. 9.Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved22 January 2024.
^刑部芳則 (2017).明治時代の勲章外交儀礼(PDF) (in Japanese). 明治聖徳記念学会紀要. p. 144.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved17 August 2020.
^Hof- und - Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern (1910), "Königliche Orden". p. 8
^William Allen, "The Abdul Hamid II Collection", History of Photography eight (1984): 119–145.
^M. I. Waley and British Library, "Sultan Abdulhamid II Early Turkish Photographs in 51 Albums from the British Library on Microfiche"; Zug, Switzerland: IDC, 1987
McMeekin, Sean (2016),The Ottoman Endgame: war, revolution, and the making of the modern Middle East, 1908–1923, New York, New York: Penguin Random House,ISBN9781594205323
Overy, Richard.The Times Complete History of the World, HarperCollinsISBN978-0-00-731569-7 (2010)
_-_ribbon_bar.png)
_ribbon.svg)
_p259_Sultan_Abdul_Hamid_II.jpg)
.svg)
