Top: Theno-fly zone over Libya as well as bases and warships which were involved in the intervention Bottom: Coloured in blue are the states that were involved in implementing the no-fly zone over Libya (coloured in green)
Date
19 March 2011 – 31 October 2011[4] (7 months, 1 week and 5 days)
On 19 March 2011, aNATO-led coalition began a military intervention into the ongoingLibyan Civil War to implementUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 (UNSCR 1973). TheUN Security Council passed the resolution with ten votes in favour and five abstentions, with the stated intent to have "an immediate ceasefire in Libya, including an end to the current attacks against civilians, which it said might constitute 'crimes against humanity' ... [imposing] a ban on all flights in the country's airspace — ano-fly zone — and tightened sanctions onMuammar Gaddafi's government and its supporters."[21]
The initial coalition members of Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar, Spain, UK and US[22][23][24][25][26] expanded to nineteen states, with later members mostly enforcing the no-fly zone and naval blockade or providing military logistical assistance. The effort was initially led by France and the United Kingdom, with command shared with the United States. Italy only joined the coalition on the condition that NATO took on overall leadership of the mission instead of individual countries.[27] NATO took control of the arms embargo on 23 March, namedOperation Unified Protector. An attempt to unify the military command of the air campaign first failed over objections by the French, German, and Turkish governments.[28][29] On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone, while command of targeting ground units remained with individual coalition forces.[30][31][32] The handover occurred on 31 March 2011.
The Libyan government's response to the campaign was ineffectual, with Gaddafi's forces failing to shoot down any NATO aircraft, despite the country extensively possessinganti-aircraft systems.[10][41] The conflict ended in late October following thekilling of Muammar Gaddafi and the overthrow of his government. Libya'snew government requested that NATO's mission be extended to the end of 2011,[42] however the Security Councilunanimously voted to end NATO's mandate on 31 October.[43] NATO's rationale for the intervention faced criticism, notably in a report released by the British parliament in 2016, which concluded that the UK government "failed to identify that the threat to civilians was overstated and that the rebels included a significant Islamist element."[44][45][46]
21 February 2011: Libyan deputy Permanent Representative to the UNIbrahim Dabbashi called "on the UN to impose a no-fly zone on all ofTripoli to cut off all supplies of arms and mercenaries to the regime."[50]
23 February 2011:French PresidentNicolas Sarkozy pushed for theEuropean Union (EU) to pass sanctions against Gaddafi (freezing Gaddafi's family funds abroad) and demand he stops attacks against civilians.
25 February 2011: Sarkozy said Gaddafi "must go."[65]
26 February 2011:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970 was passed unanimously, referring the Libyan government to theInternational Criminal Court for gross human rights violations. It imposed an arms embargo on the country and a travel ban and assets freeze on Gaddafi's family and certain Government officials.[66]
28 February 2011: British Prime MinisterDavid Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from "airlifting mercenaries" and "using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians."[55]
1 March 2011: TheUS Senate unanimously passed non-binding Senate resolution S.RES.85 urging theUnited Nations Security Council to impose a Libyan no-fly zone and encouraging Gaddafi to step down. The US had naval forces positioned off the coast of Libya, as well as forces already in the region, including the aircraft carrierUSS Enterprise.[67]
7 March 2011:US Ambassador to NATOIvo Daalder announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions ofE-3 AWACS aircraft to twenty-four hours a day. On the same day, it was reported that an anonymous UN diplomat confirmed toAgence France Presse that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone that would be considered by the UN Security Council during the same week.[54] TheGulf Cooperation Council also on that day called upon the UN Security Council to "take all necessary measures to protect civilians, including enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya."
9 March 2011: The head of the LibyanNational Transitional Council,Mustafa Abdul Jalil, "pleaded for the international community to move quickly to impose a no-fly zone over Libya, declaring that any delay would result in more casualties."[51] Three days later, he stated that if pro-Gaddafi forces reachedBenghazi, then they would kill "half a million" people. He stated, "If there is no no-fly zone imposed on Gaddafi's regime, and his ships are not checked, we will have a catastrophe in Libya."[52]
10 March 2011: France recognized the Libyan NTC as the legitimate government of Libya soon after Nicolas Sarkozy met with them in Paris. This meeting was arranged byBernard-Henri Lévy.[69]
12 March 2011: TheArab League "called on the United Nations Security Council to impose a no-fly zone over Libya in a bid to protect civilians from air attack."[59][60][61][70] The Arab League's request was announced byOmani Foreign MinisterYusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah, who stated that all member states present at the meeting agreed with the proposal.[59] On 12 March, thousands of Libyan women marched in the streets of the rebel-held town of Benghazi, calling for the imposition of a no-fly zone over Libya.[53]
14 March 2011: In Paris at theÉlysée Palace, before the summit with the G8 Minister for Foreign Affairs, Sarkozy, who is also the president of theG8, along withFrench Foreign MinisterAlain Juppé met with US Secretary of StateHillary Clinton and pressed her to push for intervention in Libya.[71]
VOA News report on the United States joining Lebanon, France, and the United Kingdom to support the no-fly zone.
15 March 2011: A resolution for a no-fly zone was proposed byNawaf Salam, Lebanon's Ambassador to the UN. The resolution was immediately backed by France and the United Kingdom.[72]
17 March 2011: The UN Security Council, acting under the authority ofChapter VII of theUN Charter, approved a no-fly zone by a vote of ten in favour, zero against, and five abstentions, viaUNSCR 1973. The five abstentions were: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Germany.[62][63][64][73][74] Less than twenty-four hours later, Libya announced that it would halt all military operations in response to the UN Security Council resolution.[75][76]
Libyan anti-government rebels, 1 March 2011
18 March 2011: The Libyan foreign minister,Moussa Koussa, said that he had declared a ceasefire, attributing the UN resolution.[77] However, artillery shelling onMisrata andAjdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approachingBenghazi.[33][78] Government troops and tanks entered the city on 19 March.[79] Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.[80]
18 March 2011: U.S. PresidentBarack Obama orders military air strikes againstMuammar Gaddafi's forces inLibya in his address to the nation from the White House.[81] US President Obama later held a meeting with eighteen senior lawmakers at the White House on the afternoon of 18 March[82]
19 March 2011: French[83] forces began the military intervention in Libya, later joined by coalition forces with strikes against armoured units south of Benghazi and attacks on Libyan air-defense systems, as UN Security Council Resolution 1973 called for using "all necessary means" to protect civilians and civilian-populated areas from attack, imposed a no-fly zone, and called for an immediate and with-standing cease-fire, while also strengthening travel bans on members of the regime, arms embargoes, and asset freezes.[21]
21 March 2011: Obama sent a letter to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate claiming the actions were justified under theWar Powers Resolution.[84]
24 March 2011: In telephone negotiations, French foreign ministerAlain Juppé agreed to let NATO take over all military operations on 29 March at the latest, allowing Turkey to veto strikes on Gaddafi's ground forces from that point forward.[85] Later reports stated that NATO would take over enforcement of the no-fly zone and the arms embargo, but discussions were still underway about whether NATO would take over the protection of civilians mission. Turkey reportedly wanted the power to veto airstrikes, while France wanted to prevent Turkey from having such a veto.[86][87]
25 March 2011: NATO Allied Joint Force Command in Naples took command of the no-fly zone over Libya and combined it with the ongoing arms embargo operation under the nameOperation Unified Protector.[88]
26 March 2011: Obama addressed the nation from the White House, providing an update on the current state of the military intervention in Libya.[89]
US PresidentBarack Obama addressing the people of the United States about the US intervention in Libya (26 March 2011)
28 March 2011: Obama addressed the American people on the rationale for U.S. military intervention with NATO forces in Libya at theNational Defense University.[90]
InitialNATO planning for a possible no-fly zone took place in late February and early March,[92] especially by NATO members France and the United Kingdom.[93] France and the UK were early supporters of a no-fly zone and had sufficient airpower to impose a no-fly zone over the rebel-held areas, although they might need additional assistance for a more extensive exclusion zone.
The US had the air assets necessary to enforce a no-fly zone, but was cautious about supporting such an action prior to obtaining a legal basis for violating Libya's sovereignty. Furthermore, due to the sensitive nature of military action by the US against an Arab nation, the US sought Arab participation in the enforcement of a no-fly zone.
At acongressional hearing, United States Secretary of DefenseRobert Gates explained that "a no-fly zone begins with an attack on Libya to destroy the air defences … and then you can fly planes around the country and not worry about our guys being shot down. But that's the way it starts."[94]
On 19 March, the deployment of French fighter jets over Libya began,[35] and other states began their individual operations. Phase One started the same day with the involvement of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Canada.[citation needed]
On 24 March, NATO ambassadors agreed that NATO would take command of the no-fly zone enforcement, while other military operations remained the responsibility of the group of states previously involved, with NATO expected to take control as early as 26 March.[95] The decision was made after meetings of NATO members to resolve disagreements over whether military operations in Libya should include attacks on ground forces.[95] The decision created a two-level power structure overseeing military operations. In charge politically was a committee, led by NATO, that included all states participating in enforcing the no-fly zone, while NATO alone was responsible for military action.[96] Royal Canadian Air Force Lieutenant-GeneralCharles Bouchard has been appointed to command the NATO military mission.[97]
After thedeath of Muammar Gaddafi on 20 October 2011, it was announced that the NATO mission would end on 31 October.[98]
Before NATO took full command of operations at 06:00 GMT on 31 March 2011, the military intervention in the form of a no-fly zone and the naval blockade was split between different national operations:
United States:Operation Odyssey Dawn – Belgium, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Qatar, Spain, Greece and the United Arab Emirates placed their national contributions under U.S. command
Belgium: SixF-16 Fighting Falcon fighter jets of theBelgian Air Component, were already stationed atAraxos, Greece for an exercise, and flew their first mission in the afternoon of 21 March. They monitored the no-fly zone throughout the operation and have successfully attacked ground targets multiple times since 27 March, all of them without collateral damage. TheBelgian Naval ComponentminehunterNarcis was part of NATO'sSNMCMG1 at the start of the operation and assisted in NATO's naval blockade from 23 March. The ship was later replaced by theminehunterLobelia in August.
Bulgaria: TheBulgarian NavyWielingen-class frigateDrazki participated in the naval blockade, along with a number of "special naval forces", two medical teams and other humanitarian help.[99][100][101] The frigate left port on 27 April and arrived off the coast of Libya on 2 May.[102] It patrolled for one month before returning to Bulgaria, with a supply stop at the Greek port ofSouda.
Palmarias of the Libyan Army, destroyed by French air force nearBenghazi, 19 March
Denmark: TheRoyal Danish Air Force participated with six F-16AM fighters, oneC-130J Super Hercules military transport plane and the corresponding ground crews. Only four F-16s were used for offensive operations, while the remaining two acted as reserves.[108] The first mission by Danish aircraft was flown on 20 March and the first strikes were carried out on 23 March, with four aircraft making twelve sorties as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn.[109] Danish F-16s flew a total of 43 missions dropping 107 precision bombs during Odyssey Dawn before switching to NATO command under Unified Protector[110] Danish flights bombed approximately 17% of all targets in Libya and together with Norwegian flights proved to be the most efficient in proportion to the number of flights involved.[111] Danish F-16s flew the last fast-jet mission of Operation Unified Protector on 31 October 2011[112] finishing with a total of 599 missions flown and 923 precision bombs dropped during the entire Libya intervention.[113]
France: TheFrench Air Force, which flew the highest percentage of NATO's strikes (35%), participated in the mission with 18Mirage, 19Rafale, 6Mirage F1, 6Super Etendard, 2E-2 Hawkeye, 3Eurocopter Tiger, 16Aérospatiale Gazelle aircraft. In addition, theFrench Navy anti-air destroyerForbin and the frigateJean Bart participated in the operations.[114] On 22 March, the aircraft carrierCharles de Gaulle arrived in international waters nearCrete to provide military planners with a rapid-response air combat capability.[115] AccompanyingCharles de Gaulle were the frigatesDupleix,Aconit, the fleet replenishment tankerMeuse, and oneRubis-class nuclear attack submarine.[116] France did station three Mirage 2000-5 aircraft and six Mirage 2000D atSouda Bay, Crete.[117] France also sent an amphibious assault helicopter carrier, theTonnerre (relieved on 14 July byMistral[118]), carrying 19 rotorcraft to operate off the coast of Libya.[119] The French Air Force and Navy flew 5600 sorties[120] (3100 CAS, 1200 reconnaissance, 400 air superiority, 340 air control, 580 air refueling) and delivered 1205 precision guided munitions (950 LGB and 225 AASM "hammer" missiles, 15 SCALP missiles).[121] Helicopter forces from Army Aviation aboard Tonnerre and Mistral LHD performed 41 night raids, 316 sorties, and destroyed 450 military objectives. The ammunition delivered were 432 Hot Missiles, 1500 68-mm rockets and 13,500 20- and 30-mm shells by Gazelle and Tigre helicopters. The French Navy provided Naval gunfire support and fired 3000 76- and 100-mm shells from the Jean Bart, Lafayette, Forbin, and Chevalier Paul destroyers.
Italy: At the beginning of the operation, as a contribution to enforce the no-fly zone, the Italian government committed fourTornado ECRs of theItalian Air Force inSEAD operations, supported by two Tornado IDS variants in an air-to-air refueling role and fourF-16ADF fighters as an escort.[126] After the transfer of authority to NATO and the decision to participate in strike air-ground operations, the Italian government increased the Italian contribution by adding four Italian NavyAV-8B plus (fromItalian aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi), four Italian Air ForceEurofighters, and fourTornado IDSs under NATO command. Other assets under national command participated in air patrolling and air refueling missions.[127] As of 24 March, theItalian Navy was engaged in Operation Unified Protector with the light aircraft carrierGiuseppe Garibaldi, theMaestrale-class frigateLibeccio and the auxiliary shipEtna.[128] Additionally, theOrizzonte-class destroyerAndrea Doria andMaestrale-class frigateEuro were patrolling off theSicilian coast in an air-defence role.[129][130] At a later stage, Italy increased its contribution to the NATO led mission by doubling the number of AV-8B Harriers and deploying an undisclosed number ofAMX fighter-bombers andKC-130J andKC-767A tanker planes. The Italian Air Force also deployed itsMQ-9A Reaper UAVs for real time video reconnaissance.[131]
U.S. Air ForceF-16s return toAviano Air Base inItaly after supporting Operation Odyssey Dawn, on 20 March.
Jordan: SixRoyal Jordanian Air Force fighter jets landed at a coalition airbase in Europe on 4 April to provide "logistical support" and act as an escort for Jordanian transport aircraft using the humanitarian corridor to deliver aid and supplies toopposition-heldCyrenaica, according to Foreign MinisterNasser Judeh. He did not specify the type of aircraft or what specific roles they may be called upon to perform, though he said they were not intended for combat.[132]
NATO: E-3airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft operated by NATO and crewed by member states helped monitor the airspace over the Mediterranean and in Libya.[133]
Norway: TheRoyal Norwegian Air Force deployed six F-16AM fighters to Souda Bay Air Base with corresponding ground crews.[136][137][138] On 24 March, the Norwegian F-16s were assigned to the US North African command andOperation Odyssey Dawn. It was also reported that Norwegian fighters along with Danish fighters had bombed the most targets in Libya in proportion to the number of planes involved.[111] On 24 June, the number of fighters deployed was reduced from six to four.[139] The Norwegian participation in the military efforts against the Libyan government came to an end in late July 2011, by which time Norwegian aircraft had dropped 588 bombs and carried out 615 of the 6493 NATO missions between 31 March and 1 August (not including 19 bombs dropped and 32 missions carried out under operation Odyssey Dawn). 75% of the missions performed by theRoyal Norwegian Air Force were so-called SCAR (Strike Coordination and Reconnaissance) missions. US military sources confirmed that on the night of 25 April, two F-16s from theRoyal Norwegian Air Force bombed the residence of Gaddafi insideTripoli.[140][141]
ARAF Tornado GR4 attacks a Libyan warship inAl Khums naval base, on 20 May 2011.
Qatar: TheQatar Armed Forces contributed with sixMirage 2000-5EDA fighter jets and two C-17 strategic transport aircraft to coalition no-fly zone enforcement efforts.[142] The Qatari aircraft were stationed in Crete.[115] At later stages in the Operation, Qatari Special Forces had been assisting in operations, including the training of theTripoli Brigade and rebel forces in Benghazi and the Nafusa mountains. Qatar also brought small groups of Libyans to Qatar for small-unit leadership training in preparation for the rebel advance on Tripoli in August.[143]
Turkey: TheTurkish Navy participated by sending theBarbaros-class frigates, TCGYildirim & TCGOrucreis, theOliver Hazard Perry-classfrigates, TCGGemlik & TCGGiresun, the tanker TCGAkar, and the submarine TCGYildiray to the NATO-led naval blockade to enforce the arms embargo.[150] It also provided six F-16 jets for aerial operations.[151] On 24 March,Turkey's parliament approved Turkish participation in military operations in Libya, including enforcing the no-fly zone in Libya.[152]
RAF Tornado GR4 targeting Libyan tank, 12 April
United Arab Emirates: On 24 March, theUnited Arab Emirates Air Force sent sixF-16 and sixMirage 2000 fighter jets to join the mission. This was also the first combat deployment of theDesert Falcon variant of F-16, which was the most sophisticated F-16 variant at the time. The planes were based at the ItalianDecimomannu air base onSardinia.[153][154]
United Kingdom: The UK had SAS around 250 forces deployed on the ground in Libya since March, with an additional 100 arriving following the official start of the intervention. The UK deployed the Royal Navy frigatesHMS Westminster andHMS Cumberland, nuclear attack submarinesHMS Triumph andHMS Turbulent, the destroyerHMS Liverpool and the mine countermeasure vesselHMS Brocklesby.[155] TheRoyal Air Force participated with 16Tornado and 10Typhoon fighters[156] operating initially from Great Britain, but later forward deployed to the Italian base atGioia del Colle.Nimrod R1 andSentinel R1 surveillance aircraft were forward deployed toRAF Akrotiri in support of the action. In addition, the RAF deployed a number of other support aircraft such as theSentry AEW.1AWACS aircraft andVC10 air-to-air refueling tankers. According to anonymous sources, members of the SAS, SBS, andSpecial Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR) helped to coordinate the air strikes on the ground in Libya.[157] On 27 May, the UK deployed four UKApache helicopters on boardHMS Ocean.[158]
Albania: Prime MinisterSali Berisha said that Albania was ready to help. Berisha supported the decision of the coalition to protect civilians from the Gaddafi regime. He also offered assistance to facilitate the coalition's actions. A press release from the Prime Minister's office stated that these operations are entirely legitimate, with their main objective being the protection of freedom and the universal rights that Libyans deserve.[175] On 29 March, Foreign MinisterEdmond Haxhinasto said Albania would open its airspace and territorial waters to coalition forces and said its seaports and airports were at the coalition's disposal upon request. He also suggested that Albania could help with international humanitarian efforts.[176] In mid-April, theInternational Business Times listed Albania alongside several other NATO member states, including Romania and Turkey, that have made modest contributions to the military effort, but it did not go into detail.[177][better source needed]
Australia: Prime MinisterJulia Gillard and others in herLabor government said Australia would not contribute militarily to enforcement of the UN mandate despite registering strong support for the mandate. The oppositionLiberal Party's defence spokesman called upon the government to consider dispatching Australian military assets if requested by NATO.[178] Defence MinisterStephen Smith said the government would be willing to sendC-17 Globemaster heavy transport planes for use in international operations "as part of a humanitarian contribution", if needed.[179] On 27 April Foreign MinisterKevin Rudd described Australia as the "third largest [humanitarian contributor to Libya] globally after the United States and the European Union", after a humanitarian aid ship funded by the Australian government docked in Misrata.[180]
Croatia: PresidentIvo Josipović said that if necessary Croatia would honour its NATO membership and participate in actions in Libya. He also stressed that while Croatia was ready for military participation according to its capabilities, it would mostly endeavor to help on the humanitarian side.[181] On 29 April, the government announced it planned to send twoCroatian Army officers to assist with Operation Unified Protector, pending formal presidential and parliamentary approval.[182]
Cyprus: After the passage of UNSCR 1973, PresidentDemetris Christofias asked the British government not to use its military base atAkrotiri, anoverseas territory of the UK on the island, in support of the intervention. However, this request had no legal weight as Cyprus could not legally bar the UK from using the base.[183] The Cypriot government reluctantly allowedQatar Emiri Air Force fighter jets and a transport plane to refuel atLarnaca International Airport on 22 March after their pilots declared a fuel emergency while in transit to Crete for participation in military operations.[184]
Estonia: Foreign MinisterUrmas Paet said on 18 March that his country had no current plans to join in military operations in Libya, but it would be willing to participate if called on to do so by NATO or the EU.[185] TheEstonian Air Force does not as of 2023[update] operate any combat aircraft, although it does operate a few helicopters and transport planes.[186]
European Union: Finnish Foreign MinisterAlexander Stubb announced that the proposedEUFOR Libya operation was being prepared, and was waiting for a request from the UN.[187]
Germany: In March the country withdrew all its forces from NATO operations in the Mediterranean Sea, as its government decided not to take part in any military operations against Libya. However, it was increasing the number of AWACS personnel in Afghanistan by up to 300 to free up the forces of other states. Germany allowed the usage of military installations in its territory for intervention in Libya.[188][189][190][191] On 8 April, German officials suggested that the country could potentially contribute troops to "[ensure] with military means that humanitarian aid gets to those who need it".[192] As of early June, the German government was reportedly considering opening a center for training police in Benghazi.[193] On 24 July, Germany lent 100 millionEuros (144 millionUS dollars) to the rebels for "civilian and humanitarian purposes".
Indonesia: PresidentSusilo Bambang Yudhoyono called for a ceasefire by all sides, but said that if a UN peacekeeping force was established to monitor a potential truce, "Indonesia is more than willing to take part."[194]
Kuwait: The Arab state would make a "logistic contribution", according to British Prime Minister David Cameron.[195][196]
Malta: Prime MinisterLawrence Gonzi said no coalition forces would be allowed to stage from military bases in Malta, but Maltese airspace would be open to international forces involved in the intervention.[197] On 20 April, two French Mirages were reportedly allowed to make emergency landings in Malta after running low on fuel.[198]
Poland: US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, UK Secretary of DefenceLiam Fox, and NATO Secretary-GeneralAnders Fogh Rasmussen urged the Polish government to contribute to military operations. As of June,Warsaw had not committed to participation.[199][needs update]
Sudan: The government "quietly granted permission" for coalition states to traverse its airspace for operations in the Libyan theatre if necessary,Reuters reported in late March.[200]
14 May: NATO air strike hit a large number of people gathered for Friday prayers in the eastern city ofBrega leaving 11 religious leaders dead and 50 others wounded.[201]
24 May: NATO air strikes in Tripoli kill 19 civilians and wound 150, according to Libyan state television.[202]
31 May: Libya claims that NATO strikes have left up to 718 civilians dead.[203]
19 June: NATO air strikes hit a residential house in Tripoli, killing seven civilians, according to Libyan state television.[204]
20 June: A NATO airstrike inSorman, near Tripoli, killed fifteen civilians, according to government officials.[205] Eight rockets apparently hit the compound of a senior government official, in an area where NATO confirmed operations had taken place.[205]
25 June: NATO strikes on Brega hit a bakery and a restaurant, killing 15 civilians and wounding 20 more, Libyan state television claimed. The report further accused the coalition of "crimes against humanity". The claims were denied by NATO.[206]
28 June: NATO airstrike on the town ofTawergha, 300 km east of the Libyan capital,Tripoli kills eight civilians.[citation needed]
25 July: NATO airstrike on a medical clinic inZliten kills 11 civilians, though the claim was denied by NATO, who said they hit a vehicle depot and communications center.[207][208]
20 July: NATO attacks Libyan state TV,Al-Jamahiriya. Three journalists killed.[209]
9 August: Libyan government claims 85 civilians were killed in a NATO airstrike in Majer, a village near Zliten. A spokesman confirms that NATO bombed Zliten at 2:34 a.m. on 9 August,[210] but says he was unable to confirm the casualties. Commander of the NATO military mission,Lieutenant GeneralCharles Bouchard says "I cannot believe that 85 civilians were present when we struck in the wee hours of the morning, and given our intelligence. But I cannot assure you that there were none at all".[211]
15 September: Gaddafi spokesman Moussa Ibrahim declares that NATO air strikes killed 354 civilians and wounded 700 others, while 89 other civilians are supposedly missing. He also claims that over 2,000 civilians have been killed by NATO air strikes since 1 September.[212] NATO denied the claims, saying they were unfounded.[213]
2 March 2012:United Nations Human Rights Council release their report about the aftermath of the Libyan civil war, concluding that in total 60 civilians were killed and 55 wounded by the NATO air campaign. In the same report, the UN Human Rights Council concludes that NATO "conducted a highly precise campaign with a demonstrable determination to avoid civilian casualties".[214] In May that same year,Human Rights Watch published a report claiming that at least 72 civilians were killed.[16]
The USAF F-15E that crashed over Libya, numbered 91-0304/LN, inOstrava, Czech Republic, six months before the accident. Both crew members ejected and were rescued.
22 March 2011: One USAFF-15E flying from Aviano crashed in Bu Marim, northwest of Benghazi. The pilot was rescued alive byUS Marines from the26th Marine Expeditionary Unit based on theUSS Kearsarge. The weapons systems officer evaded hostile forces and was subsequently repatriated by Italian forces.[215][216] The aircraft crashed due to a mechanical failure.[217] The rescue operation involved twoBell-Boeing V-22 Osprey aircraft, twoSikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters, and twoMcDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II aircraft, all launched from the USSKearsarge.[218] The operation involved the Harriers' dropping 227 kg (500 lb) bombs andstrafing the area around the crash site before an Osprey recovered at least one of the downed aircraft's crew;[218][219] injuring six local civilians in the process.[220][221]
27 April 2011: An F-16 from theUnited Arab Emirates Air Force crashed atNaval Air Station Sigonella at about 11:35 local time; the pilot ejected safely.[222] The aircraft was confirmed to be from the UAE by the country's General Command of the armed forces, and had been arriving fromSardinia when it crashed.[222]
21 June 2011: An unmanned US NavyMQ-8 Fire Scout went down over Libya, possibly due to enemy fire.[11] NATO confirmed that they lost radar contact with the unmanned helicopter as it was performing an intelligence and reconnaissance mission near Zliten.[11] NATO began investigating the crash shortly after it occurred.[11] On 5 August, it was announced that the investigation had concluded that the cause of the crash was probably enemy fire; with an operator or mechanical failure ruled out and the inability of investigators to access the crash site the "logical conclusion" was that the aircraft had been shot down.[223]
20 July 2011: A British airman was killed in a traffic accident in Italy while part of a logistical convoy transferring supplies from the UK to NATO bases in the south of Italy from which air strikes were being conducted against Libya.[224][225]
Since the start of the campaign, there have been allegations of violating the limits imposed upon the intervention by Resolution 1973 and by US law. At the end of May 2011, Western troops were captured on film in Libya, despite Resolution 1973 specifically forbidding "a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory".[226]
In a March 2011Gallup poll, 47% of Americans had approved of military action against Libya, compared with 37% disapproval.[227]
On 10 June, US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates criticized some of the NATO member nations for their efforts, or lack thereof, to participate in the intervention in Libya. Gates singled out Germany, Poland, Spain, Turkey, and the Netherlands for criticism. He praised Canada, Norway, and Denmark, saying that although those three countries had only provided 12% of the aircraft to the operation, their aircraft had conducted one-third of the strikes.[228]
On 24 June, the US House voted against Joint Resolution 68, which would have authorized continued US military involvement in the NATO campaign for up to one year.[229][230] The majority of Republicans voted against the resolution,[231] with some questioning US interests in Libya and others criticizing the White House for overstepping its authority by conducting a military expedition without Congressional backing. House Democrats were split on the issue, with 115 voting in favor of and 70 voting against. Despite the failure of the President to receive legal authorization from Congress, the Obama administration continued its military campaign, carrying out the bulk of NATO's operations until the overthrow of Gaddafi in October.
On 9 August, the head ofUNESCO,Irina Bokova deplored a NATO strike on Libyan State TV,Al-Jamahiriya, that killed 3 journalists and wounded others.[232] Bokova declared that media outlets should not be the target of military activities. On 11 August, after the NATO airstrike on Majer (on 9 August) that allegedly killed 85 civilians, UN Secretary-GeneralBan Ki-moon called on all sides to do as much as possible to avoid killing innocent people.[233]
According to a Gallup poll conducted in March and April 2012, a survey involving 1,000 Libyans showed 75% of Libyans were in favor of the NATO intervention, compared to 22% who were opposed.[234] A post-war Orb International poll involving 1,249 Libyans found broad support for the intervention, with 85% of Libyans saying that they strongly supported the action taken to remove the Ghadafi regime.[235]
The military intervention in Libya has been cited by theCouncil on Foreign Relations as an example of theresponsibility to protect policy adopted by the UN at the2005 World Summit.[236] According toGareth Evans, "[t]he international military intervention (SMH) in Libya is not about bombing for democracy or Muammar Gaddafi's head. Legally, morally, politically, and militarily it has only one justification: protecting the country's people."[236] However, the council also noted that the policy had been used only in Libya, and not in countries such asCôte d'Ivoire, undergoing apolitical crisis at the time, or in response toprotests in Yemen.[236] A CFR expert, Stewert Patrick, said that "There is bound to be selectivity and inconsistency in the application of the responsibility to protect norm given the complexity of national interests at stake in...the calculations of other major powers involved in these situations."[236] In January 2012, theArab Organization for Human Rights,Palestinian Centre for Human Rights and theInternational Legal Assistance Consortium published a report describing alleged human rights violations and accusing NATO of war crimes.[237]
On 3 June 2011, theU.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution, calling for a withdrawal of the United States military from the air and naval operations in and around Libya. It demanded that the administration provide, within 14 days, an explanation of why PresidentBarack Obama did not come to Congress for permission to continue to take part in the mission.[238]
On 13 June, the House passed a resolution prohibiting the use of funds for operations in the conflict, with 110 Democrats and 138 Republicans voting in favor.[239][240]Harold Koh, the State department's legal advisor, was called to testify in front of theSenate Committee on Foreign Relations to defend the actions of the Obama administration under theWar Powers Resolution.[241] Koh was questioned by the Committee on the Obama administration's interpretation of the word "hostilities" under the War Powers Resolution § 4(a)(1) and 5(b).[241] Koh reasoned that under the constitution, the term "hostilities" was left up for interpretation by the executive branch, and therefore the interpretation fit the historical definition of that word. Koh argued that historically the term "hostilities" has previously been used to mean limited military action acting in support of a conflict, and the scope of this operation suits that interpretation.[242] Ultimately the Committee still remained concerned by the actions of the President.[242]
On 24 June, the House rejected Joint Resolution 68, which would have provided the Obama administration with authorization to continue military operations in Libya for up to one year.[243]
Protest inBelgrade,Serbia on 26 March 2011 against military intervention in LibyaProtest inMinneapolis,United States on 2 April 2011 against US military intervention in Libya
The military intervention was criticized, both at the time and subsequently, on a variety of grounds.
An in-depth investigation into the Libyan intervention and its aftermath was conducted by the UK Parliament'sHouse of Commons' cross-party Foreign Affairs Committee, the final conclusions of which were released on 14 September 2016 in a report titledLibya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options. TheForeign Affairs Select Committee saw no evidence that the UK Government carried out a proper analysis of the nature of the rebellion in Libya and it "selectively took elements of Muammar Gaddafi's rhetoric at face value; and it failed to identify the militant Islamist extremist element in the rebellion. UK strategy was founded on erroneous assumptions and an incomplete understanding of the evidence".[45] The report was strongly critical of the British government's role in the intervention.[244][46] The report concluded that the government "failed to identify that the threat to civilians was overstated and that the rebels included a significant Islamist element."[245] In particular, the committee concluded that Gaddafi was not planning to massacre civilians, and that reports to the contrary were propagated by rebels and Western governments.[44][45][246]
Contestation of evidence of civilian massacres by Gaddafi
Alison Pargeter, a freelance Middle East and North Africa (MENA) analyst, told the Committee that when Gaddafi's forces re-took Ajdabiya they did not attack civilians, and this had taken place in February 2011, shortly before the NATO intervention.[247] She also said that Gaddafi's approach towards the rebels had been one of "appeasement", with the release of Islamist prisoners and promises of significant development assistance for Benghazi.[247][non-primary source needed] However, evidence which was collected during the intervention suggested otherwise, showing things such as shooting deaths of hundreds of protestors, reports of mass rapes by Libyan Armed Forces and orders from Gaddafi's senior generals to bombard and starve the people ofMisrata.[248][249][250][unreliable source?]
In his March 28 address, Barack Obama warned of an imminent risk of a massacre inBenghazi.[251] However, journalist S.Awan argued that the subsequent airstrikes "destroyed a very small convoy of government vehicles, including ambulances."[252] Furthermore, Professor Alan J. Kuperman argued against the idea of an imminent massacre in Benghazi, arguing that in captured cities such asZawiya,Misurata andAjdabiya no massacre had occurred, so Kuperman believed that there was little reason to think Benghazi would be any different.[252] While there were civilian casualties, he argued that there was no effort to target civilian concentrations, with Libya's air force primarily targeting rebel positions.[253]
According to the report, France's motive for initiating the intervention was economic and political as well as humanitarian. In a briefing to Hillary Clinton on 2 April 2011, her adviserSidney Blumenthal reported that, according to high-level French intelligence, France's motives for overthrowing Gaddafi were to increase France's share of Libya's oil production, strengthen French influence in Africa, and improve President Sarkozy's standing at home.[254] The report also highlighted how Islamic extremists had a large influence on the uprising, which was largely ignored by the West to the future detriment of Libya.[244][46]
Some critics of Western military intervention suggested that resources—not democratic or humanitarian concerns—were the real impetus for the intervention, among them a journalist of London Arab nationalist newspaper Al-Quds Al-Arabi, the Russian TV network RT and the (then-)leaders of Venezuela and Zimbabwe, Hugo Chávez and Robert Mugabe.[258][259][260]Gaddafi's Libya, despite its relatively small population, was known to possess vast resources, particularly in the form ofoil reserves andfinancial capital.[261][better source needed]
A left-leaning French daily newspaper published a letter by the NTC which it said had promised France access to 35% of Libyan crude oil.[262]
The intervention prompted a widespread wave of criticism from several world leaders, including:Iran'sSupreme LeaderAyatollah Khamenei (who said he supported therebels but not Western intervention[260]), VenezuelanPresidentHugo Chávez (who referred to Gaddafi as a "martyr"[259]), South African PresidentJacob Zuma,[263][failed verification] andPresident ofZimbabweRobert Mugabe (who referred to the Western nations as "vampires"[258]), as well as the governments ofRaúl Castro inCuba,[264]Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua,[265]Kim Jong-il in North Korea,[266]Hifikepunye Pohamba in Namibia,[267]Alexander Lukashenko in Belarus,[268][269][270] and others. Gaddafi himself referred to the intervention as a "colonialcrusade … capable of unleashing a full-scale war",[271] a sentiment that was echoed by Russian Prime MinisterVladimir Putin: "[UNSC Resolution 1973] is defective and flawed...It allows everything. It resembles medieval calls for crusades."[272] PresidentHu Jintao of the People's Republic of China said, "Dialogue and other peaceful means are the ultimate solutions to problems," and added, "If military action brings disaster to civilians and causes a humanitarian crisis, then it runs counter to the purpose of the UN resolution."[273] Indian Prime MinisterManmohan Singh was critical of the intervention as well, rebuking the coalition in a speech at the UN in September 2011.[274] Italian Prime MinisterSilvio Berlusconi, despite the substantial role his country played in the NATO mission, also spoke out against getting involved: "I had my hands tied by the vote of the parliament of my country. But I was against and I am against this intervention which will end in a way that no-one knows" and added, "This wasn't a popular uprising because Gaddafi was loved by his people, as I was able to see when I went to Libya."[275][276]
Despite its stated opposition to NATO intervention, Russia abstained from voting onResolution 1973 instead of exercising its veto power as a permanent member of theSecurity Council; four other powerful nations also abstained from the vote—India, China, Germany, andBrazil—but of that group only China has the same veto power.[277]
Micah Zenko argues that the Obama administration deceived the public by pretending the intervention was intended to protect Libyan civilians instead of achieving regime change when "in truth, the Libyan intervention was about regime change from the very start".[278]
A 2013 paper byAlan Kuperman argued that NATO went beyond its remit of providing protection for civilians and instead supported the rebels by engaging in regime change. It argued that NATO's intervention likely extended the length (and thus damage) of the civil war, which Kuperman argued could have ended in less than two months without NATO intervention. The paper argued that the intervention was based on a misperception of the danger Gaddafi's forces posed to the civilian population, which Kuperman suggests was caused by existing bias against Gaddafi due to his past actions (such as support for terrorism), sloppy and sensationalistic journalism during the early stages of the war and propaganda from anti-government forces. Kuperman suggests that this demonization of Gaddafi, which was used to justify the intervention, ended up discouraging efforts to accept a ceasefire and negotiated settlement, turning a humanitarian intervention into a dedicated regime change.[279][undue weight? –discuss]
Moreover, criticisms have been made on the way the operation was led. According toMichael Kometer andStephen E. Wright inFocus stratégique, the outcome of the Libyan intervention was reached by default rather than by design. It appears that there was an important lack of consistent political guidance caused particularly by the vagueness of the UN mandate and the ambiguous consensus among the NATO-led coalition. This lack of clear political guidance was translated into an incoherent military planning on the operational level. Such a gap may impact the future NATO's operations that will probably face trust issues.[280][undue weight? –discuss]
On 22 March 2011, BBC News presented a breakdown of the likely costs to the UK of the mission.[297] Journalist Francis Tusa, editor of Defence Analysis, estimated that flying aTornado GR4 would cost about£35,000 an hour (c. US$48,000), so the cost of patrolling one sector of Libyan airspace would be £2M–3M (US$2.75M–4.13M) per day. Conventional airborne missiles would cost £800,000 each and Tomahawk cruise missiles £750,000 each.[citation needed] Professor Malcolm Charmers of theRoyal United Services Institute similarly suggested that a single cruise missile would cost about £500,000, while a single Tornado sortie would cost about £30,000 in fuel alone. If a Tornado was downed the replacement cost would be upwards of £50m. By 22 March the US and UK had already fired more than 110 cruise missiles.UK ChancellorGeorge Osborne had said that the MoD estimate of the operation cost was "tens rather than hundreds of millions".[297] On 4 AprilAir Chief Marshal SirStephen Dalton said that the RAF was planning to continue operations over Libya for at least six months.[298]
The total number of sorties flown by NATO numbered more than 26,000, an average of 120 sorties per day. 42% of the sorties were strike sorties, which damaged or destroyed approximately 6,000 military targets. At its peak, the operation involved more than 8,000 servicemen and women, 21 NATO ships in the Mediterranean and more than 250 aircraft of all types. By the end of the operation, NATO had conducted over 3,000 hailings at sea and almost 300 boardings for inspection, with 11 vessels denied transit to their next port of call.[299] Eight NATO and two non-NATO countries flew strike sorties. Of these, Denmark, Canada, and Norway together were responsible for 31%,[300] the United States was responsible for 16%, Italy 10%, France 33%, Britain 21%, and Belgium, Qatar, and the UAE the remainder.[301]
Since the end of the war, which overthrew Gaddafi, there has beenviolence involving various militias and the new state security forces.[302][303] The violence has escalated into theSecond Libyan Civil War. Critics described the military intervention as "disastrous" and accused it of destabilizing North Africa, leading to the rise of Islamic extremist groups in the region.[304][44] Libya became what many scholars described as afailed state — a state that has disintegrated to a point where the government no longer performs its function properly.[305][306][307]
Libya has become the main exit formigrants trying to get to Europe.[308] In September 2015,South African PresidentJacob Zuma said that "consistent and systematic bombing by NATO forces undermined the security and caused conflicts that are continuing in Libya and neighbouring countries ... It was the actions taken, the bombarding of Libya and killing of its leader, that opened the flood gates."[309]
In a 2016 interview with Fox News, U.S. PresidentBarack Obama stated that the "worst mistake" of his presidency was "probably failing to plan for the day after what I think was the right thing to do in intervening in Libya."[310][311] Obama also acknowledged there had been issues with following up the conflict planning, commenting in a 2016 interview withThe Atlantic magazine that British Prime MinisterDavid Cameron had allowed himself to be "distracted by a range of other things".[312][313][314]
^Ege, Rune Thomas; Magnus, Jon; Sperstad, Kari Tone; Matre, Jostein; Kippernes, Geir Arne (24 March 2011)."Her flyr norske jagerfly mot Libya".Verdens Gang (in Norwegian).Archived from the original on 10 September 2011. Retrieved25 March 2011.
^Jeffrey H. Michaels (2013). Kjell Engelbrekt; Marcus Mohlin; Charlotte Wagnsson (eds.).The NATO Intervention in Libya: Lessons learned from the campaign. Routledge. p. 31.ISBN978-0-415-70549-3.
^Tirpak, John A. (July 2011)."Bombers Over Libya"(PDF).Air Force Magazine. US: Air Force Association.Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved25 September 2018.
Chesterman, Simon (2011). "'Leading from Behind': The Responsibility to Protect, the Obama Doctrine, and Humanitarian Intervention After Libya".Ethics & International Affairs.25 (3):279–285.doi:10.1017/S0892679411000190.S2CID145791123.SSRN1855843.
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