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2008 United States presidential election in Virginia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Main article:2008 United States presidential election
2008 United States presidential election in Virginia

← 2004November 4, 20082012 →
Turnout74.0%Increase 3.2[1]
 
NomineeBarack ObamaJohn McCain
PartyDemocraticRepublican
Home stateIllinoisArizona
Running mateJoe BidenSarah Palin
Electoral vote130
Popular vote1,959,5321,725,005
Percentage52.63%46.33%

County and independent city results
Congressional district results
Precinct results

Obama

  40–50%
  50–60%
  60–70%
  70–80%
  80–90%
  90–100%

McCain

  40–50%
  50–60%
  60–70%
  70–80%
  80–90%

Tie/No Data

  
  


President before election

George W. Bush
Republican

Elected President

Barack Obama
Democratic

The2008 United States presidential election in Virginia took place on November 4, 2008, which was part of the2008 United States presidential election. Voters chose 13 representatives, or electors to theElectoral College, who voted forpresident andvice president.

Virginia was won by Democratic nomineeBarack Obama by a 6.3% margin of victory. Prior to the election, 16 of 17 news organizations considered this a state Obama would win, or otherwise a likelyblue state, despite the fact that Virginia had not voted for a Democratic presidential nominee sinceLyndon B. Johnson's 44-state landslide in1964. The2008 financial crisis, changing demographics, and population increases in voter-richNorthern Virginia helped make the state more competitive for Obama. His victory marked a powerful shift in the political climate in Virginia, as the state would go on to vote for the Democratic presidential nominee in every election thereafter.

In contrast to Virginia,West Virginia voted for McCain. This was the first time Virginia voted Democratic and West Virginia voted Republican since1924. Starting in 2008, Virginia has always voted for the Democratic nominee and West Virginia has always voted for the Republican nominee.[2]

Despite Obama's victory, Virginia's margin was 0.97% more Republican than the national average, the most recent time Virginia has voted further to the right than the nation at-large. As of the2024 presidential election[update], this is the last election in whichKing and Queen County voted for the Democratic candidate.

Primaries

[edit]

Campaign

[edit]
Elections in Virginia
U.S. President
Presidential primaries
U.S. Senate
U.S. House
Governor
Lieutenant Governor
Attorney General
Senate
House of Delegates
State elections
Commonwealth's Attorney

Virginia was one of the firstSouthern states to break away from its traditional Democratic roots. It voted forDwight Eisenhower by a convincing margin in 1952, and voted for every Republican nominee since then save for Johnson's massive landslide in 1964.

However, the Democrats had made big gains in recent years by winning two gubernatorial races in a row, regaining control of theVirginia Senate, and electing DemocratJim Webb to theU.S. Senate over incumbent RepublicanGeorge Allen in2006. Democrats made such gains in part due to the ever-expandingNorthern Virginia, particularly the suburbs surroundingWashington, D.C. Historically, this area was strongly Republican. However, in recent years it has been dominated by whiteliberals who tend to vote Democratic.[3] It was, ultimately, this rapid demographic change that provided a huge new influx of Democratic voters to Virginia.[4]

Both presidential campaigns and the mainstream media treated Virginia as a swing state for most of the campaign. Obama campaigned extensively in Virginia and counted on the booming northern parts of the state for a Democratic victory. Victory in the presidential election for McCain would have been extremely difficult without Virginia; he would have had to win every swing state as well as at least one Democratic-leaning state.

Predictions

[edit]

There were 16 news organizations that made state-by-state predictions of the election. Here are their last predictions before election day:

SourceRanking
D.C. Political Report[5]Lean D(flip)
Cook Political Report[6]Lean D(flip)
The Takeaway[7]Lean D(flip)
Electoral-vote.com[8]Lean D(flip)
Washington Post[9]Lean D(flip)
Politico[10]Lean D(flip)
RealClearPolitics[11]Toss-up
FiveThirtyEight[9]Lean D(flip)
CQ Politics[12]Lean D(flip)
The New York Times[13]Lean D(flip)
CNN[14]Lean D(flip)
NPR[9]Lean D(flip)
MSNBC[9]Lean D(flip)
Fox News[15]Likely D(flip)
Associated Press[16]Likely D(flip)
Rasmussen Reports[17]Lean D(flip)

Polling

[edit]
Main article:Statewide opinion polling for the United States presidential election, 2008: Virginia

After McCain clinched the Republican Party nomination in early March, he took a wide lead in polls against Obama, averaging almost 50%. But through the summer, polling was nearly dead even, with McCain only slightly leading Obama. After theLehman Brothers went bankrupt, Obama took a wide lead in the polls. In October, Obama won every single poll taken but one, and reached over 50% in most of them. The final three polls averaged Obama leading 51% to 46%.[18][19]

Fundraising

[edit]

Obama raised $17,035,784. McCain raised $16,130,194.[20]

Spending and visits

[edit]

Obama spent over $26 million to McCain spending just $14 million.[21] The Obama-Biden ticket visited the state 19 times compared to just 10 times for McCain-Palin.[22]

Analysis

[edit]
Voters wait in queue at a polling station on the campus ofGeorge Mason University

On Election Day, early returns showed McCain ahead.[23] This was due in large part to the fact that many of the rural areas began to report first. However, Obama swamped McCain by scoring a near-sweep in Northern Virginia, which reported its returns last.

Obama did exceptionally well throughout the most populous regions of the state. Northern Virginia overwhelmingly supported Obama.[24] InArlington County and the independent city ofAlexandria, the most traditionally Democratic jurisdictions in the region, Obama got over 70% of the vote, improving on Kerry by between 4% and 5% in both. InFairfax County (the largest county in the state, and a then-traditionally Republican county that Kerry had become the first Democrat in 40 years to carry in 2004) Obama exceeded 60%, improving on Kerry's percentage by just shy of 7%. Just beyond Fairfax, to its south and west, Obama flipped the large counties ofLoudoun andPrince William, becoming the first Democrat to carry either since 1964. He also won the independent cities of Harrisonburg for the first time since 1940, Hopewell since 1952, Manassas Park since 1976, Staunton since 1944, and Winchester since 1964.[25]

The two other major metropolitan areas in the eastern part of the state,Richmond andHampton Roads, are somewhat less Democratic than Northern Virginia. In both areas, Obama improved significantly onJohn Kerry's performance.[24] While Obama easily won Richmond itself (which is 57% African American), he also made significant inroads into Richmond's traditionally heavily Republican suburbs. He carriedHenrico County with 57% of the vote; that county last supported a Democrat withHarry S. Truman in1948.[26] InChesterfield County, Obama did almost 20 points better than Kerry.[27] Both counties had historically been strongly Republican at the national level; Chesterfield had given George W. Bush his largest raw vote margin in Virginia in both 2000 and 2004.

Obama also did very well in Hampton Roads. The four Democratic-leaning cities along the harbor -Hampton,Newport News,Norfolk, andPortsmouth - gave him margins exceeding 60%. Obama also split the Republican-leaning cities ofChesapeake andVirginia Beach; he barely won the former and barely lost the latter. Obama's strong performance in the area likely contributed to DemocratGlenn Nye unseating two-term Republican incumbentThelma Drake in the2nd Congressional District, a heavy military district which includes all of Virginia Beach and large portions of Norfolk and Hampton. Outside Virginia's three major metropolitan areas, Obama also significantly outperformed Kerry inAlbemarle andMontgomery Counties and in a series of independent cities around the state, most significantlyRoanoke. Albemarle County surroundsCharlottesville, home to theUniversity of Virginia, and Montgomery County is home toVirginia Tech.

Elsewhere in rural Virginia, however, McCain did well.[27] In theShenandoah Valley andSouthside Virginia, both traditional bases for the Republican Party in Virginia,[28] Obama ran roughly evenly with Kerry; but insouthwestern Virginia—at the time one of the more traditionally Democratic regions of the state—McCain outperformed Bush in 2004, even flipping two counties (Buchanan andDickenson), both of which last voted Republican in 1972; Obama thus became the first Democrat to win the White House without carrying the aforementioned two counties sinceWoodrow Wilson in1916. However, without the support of suburban voters in the eastern metropolitan areas of the commonwealth, McCain was ultimately unable to hold Virginia.

During the same election, former DemocraticGovernorMark Warner solidly defeated former Governor (and his predecessor) RepublicanJim Gilmore by a two-to-one margin for the openU.S. Senate seat vacated by incumbent RepublicanJohn Warner (no relation to Mark Warner). Warner received 65.03% of the vote while Gilmore took in 33.73%. Warner won all but five counties in the state. Democrats also picked up three seats in theU.S. House of Representatives. At the state level, Democrats picked up one seat in theVirginia House of Delegates.

Results

[edit]
United States presidential election in Virginia, 2008[29]
PartyCandidateRunning mateVotesPercentageElectoral votes
DemocraticBarack ObamaJoe Biden1,959,53252.63%13
RepublicanJohn McCainSarah Palin1,725,00546.33%0
IndependentRalph NaderMatt Gonzalez11,4830.31%0
LibertarianBob BarrWayne Allyn Root11,0670.30%0
ConstitutionChuck BaldwinDarrell Castle7,4740.20%0
GreenCynthia McKinneyRosa Clemente2,3440.06%0
Write-insWrite-ins6,3550.17%0
Totals3,723,260100.00%13
Voter turnout (Voting age population)65.1%

By city and county

[edit]
County/CityBarack Obama
Democratic
John McCain
Republican
Various candidates
Other parties
MarginTotal
#%#%#%#%
Accomack7,60748.69%7,83350.14%1831.17%-226-1.45%15,623
Albemarle29,79258.43%20,57640.36%6161.21%9,21618.07%50,984
Alexandria50,47371.73%19,18127.26%7101.01%31,29244.47%70,364
Alleghany3,55348.22%3,71550.41%1011.37%-162-2.19%7,369
Amelia2,48838.11%3,97060.81%711.08%-1,482-22.70%6,529
Amherst6,09441.46%8,47057.62%1360.92%-2,376-16.16%14,700
Appomattox2,64134.61%4,90364.26%861.13%-2,262-29.65%7,630
Arlington78,99471.71%29,87627.12%1,2831.17%49,11844.59%110,153
Augusta9,82529.47%23,12069.35%3931.18%-13,295-39.88%33,338
Bath1,04342.89%1,34955.47%401.64%-306-12.58%2,432
Bedford11,01730.75%24,42068.16%3931.09%-13,403-37.41%35,830
Bedford City1,20844.18%1,49754.75%291.07%-289-10.57%2,734
Bland86429.20%2,03168.64%642.16%-1,167-39.44%2,959
Botetourt5,69332.71%11,47165.90%2421.39%-5,778-33.19%17,406
Bristol2,66536.21%4,57962.22%1151.57%-1,914-26.01%7,359
Brunswick4,97362.84%2,87736.35%640.81%2,09626.49%7,914
Buchanan4,06346.52%4,54151.99%1301.49%-478-5.47%8,734
Buckingham3,48949.89%3,42849.01%771.10%610.88%6,994
Buena Vista1,10845.73%1,28252.91%331.36%-174-7.18%2,423
Campbell8,09131.34%17,44467.58%2791.08%-9,353-36.24%25,814
Caroline7,16355.45%5,61743.48%1391.07%1,54611.97%12,919
Carroll4,10932.67%8,18765.08%2832.25%-4,078-32.41%12,579
Charles City2,83868.34%1,28831.01%270.65%1,55037.33%4,153
Charlotte2,70543.93%3,37254.77%801.30%-667-10.84%6,157
Charlottesville15,70578.35%4,07820.35%2611.30%11,62758.00%20,044
Chesapeake53,99450.22%52,62548.94%9020.84%1,3691.28%107,521
Chesterfield74,31045.85%86,41353.31%1,3650.84%-12,103-7.46%162,088
Clarke3,45746.52%3,84051.68%1341.80%-383-5.16%7,431
Colonial Heights2,56228.95%6,16169.62%1261.43%-3,599-40.67%8,849
Covington1,30455.40%1,02043.33%301.27%28412.07%2,354
Craig87733.46%1,69564.67%491.87%-818-31.21%2,621
Culpeper8,80244.59%10,71154.26%2281.15%-1,909-9.67%19,741
Cumberland2,25547.73%2,41851.19%511.08%-163-3.46%4,724
Danville12,35259.13%8,36140.02%1770.85%3,99119.11%20,890
Dickenson3,27848.54%3,32449.22%1512.24%-46-0.68%6,753
Dinwiddie6,24648.45%6,52650.62%1200.93%-280-2.17%12,892
Emporia1,70265.04%89734.28%180.68%80530.76%2,617
Essex2,93454.70%2,37944.35%510.95%55510.35%5,364
Fairfax310,35960.12%200,99438.93%4,9010.95%109,36521.19%516,254
Fairfax City6,57557.69%4,69141.16%1321.15%1,88416.53%11,398
Falls Church4,69569.56%1,97029.19%851.25%2,72540.37%6,750
Fauquier14,61642.71%19,22756.19%3761.10%-4,611-13.48%34,219
Floyd2,93739.08%4,44159.09%1381.83%-1,504-20.01%7,516
Fluvanna6,18548.57%6,42050.41%1301.02%-235-1.84%12,735
Franklin9,61837.86%15,41460.68%3691.46%-5,796-22.82%25,401
Franklin City2,81963.68%1,57635.60%320.72%1,24328.08%4,427
Frederick12,96138.56%20,14959.95%5021.49%-7,188-21.39%33,612
Fredericksburg6,15563.60%3,41335.27%1091.13%2,74228.33%9,677
Galax1,05243.80%1,31754.83%331.37%-265-11.03%2,402
Giles3,19240.95%4,46257.24%1411.81%-1,270-16.29%7,795
Gloucester6,91635.98%12,08962.89%2171.13%-5,173-26.91%19,222
Goochland4,81338.31%7,64360.84%1060.85%-2,830-22.53%12,562
Grayson2,48034.35%4,54062.88%2002.77%-2,060-28.53%7,220
Greene3,17438.43%4,98060.29%1061.28%-1,806-21.86%8,260
Greensville3,12263.88%1,72935.38%360.74%1,39328.50%4,887
Halifax8,12648.23%8,60051.04%1240.73%-474-2.81%16,850
Hampton46,91769.05%20,47630.14%5500.81%26,44138.91%67,943
Hanover18,44732.80%37,34466.39%4570.81%-18,897-33.59%56,248
Harrisonburg8,44457.54%6,04841.21%1831.25%2,39616.33%14,675
Henrico86,32355.70%67,38143.48%1,2620.82%18,94212.22%154,966
Henry11,11844.09%13,75854.56%3391.35%-2,640-10.47%25,215
Highland59037.97%93059.85%342.18%-340-21.88%1,554
Hopewell5,28555.49%4,14943.56%900.95%1,13611.93%9,524
Isle of Wight8,57342.87%11,25856.30%1660.83%-2,685-13.43%19,997
James City17,35244.95%20,91254.17%3390.88%-3,560-9.22%38,603
King and Queen1,91851.77%1,76347.58%240.65%1554.19%3,705
King George4,47342.71%5,88856.22%1131.07%-1,415-13.51%10,474
King William3,34439.87%4,96659.20%780.93%-1,622-19.33%8,388
Lancaster3,23546.63%3,64752.57%560.80%-412-5.94%6,938
Lee3,21934.89%5,82563.13%1831.98%-2,606-28.24%9,227
Lexington1,54362.24%91436.87%220.89%62925.37%2,479
Loudoun74,84553.67%63,33645.42%1,2780.91%11,5098.25%139,459
Louisa6,97845.45%8,18253.29%1931.26%-1,204-7.84%15,353
Lunenburg2,70347.84%2,90051.33%470.83%-197-3.49%5,650
Lynchburg16,26947.37%17,63851.36%4341.27%-1,369-3.99%34,341
Madison2,86242.72%3,75856.10%791.18%-896-13.38%6,699
Manassas7,51855.17%5,97543.85%1340.98%1,54311.32%13,627
Manassas Park2,46359.49%1,63439.47%431.04%82920.02%4,140
Martinsville4,13963.48%2,31135.44%701.08%1,82828.04%6,520
Mathews1,93435.55%3,45663.53%500.92%-1,522-27.98%5,440
Mecklenburg7,12747.26%7,81751.83%1380.91%-690-4.57%15,082
Middlesex2,39139.81%3,54559.02%701.17%-1,154-19.21%6,006
Montgomery21,03151.73%19,02846.81%5941.46%2,0034.92%40,653
Nelson4,39153.99%3,64744.84%951.17%7449.15%8,133
New Kent3,49334.96%6,38563.91%1131.13%-2,892-28.95%9,991
Newport News51,97263.93%28,66735.26%6560.81%23,30528.67%81,295
Norfolk62,81971.03%24,81428.06%8130.91%38,00542.97%88,446
Northampton3,80057.70%2,71341.19%731.11%1,08716.51%6,586
Northumberland3,31244.72%4,04154.56%530.72%-729-9.84%7,406
Norton74349.14%74449.21%251.65%-1-0.07%1,512
Nottoway3,41348.84%3,49950.07%761.09%-86-1.23%6,988
Orange7,10744.98%8,50653.83%1881.19%-1,399-8.85%15,801
Page4,23540.76%6,04158.15%1131.09%-1,806-17.39%10,389
Patrick2,87933.75%5,49164.37%1611.88%-2,612-30.62%8,531
Petersburg13,77488.64%1,58310.19%1831.17%12,19178.45%15,540
Pittsylvania11,41537.51%18,73061.55%2880.94%-7,315-24.04%30,433
Poquoson1,74824.74%5,22974.01%881.25%-3,481-49.27%7,065
Portsmouth32,32769.27%13,98429.97%3540.76%18,34339.30%46,665
Powhatan4,23729.31%10,08869.78%1310.91%-5,851-40.47%14,456
Prince Edward5,10154.34%4,17444.46%1131.20%9279.88%9,388
Prince George7,13044.55%8,75254.68%1240.77%-1,622-10.13%16,006
Prince William93,43557.52%67,62141.63%1,3900.85%25,81415.89%162,446
Pulaski5,91839.32%8,85758.85%2751.83%-2,939-19.53%15,050
Radford2,93053.97%2,41844.54%811.49%5129.43%5,429
Rappahannock2,10547.79%2,22750.56%731.65%-122-2.77%4,405
Richmond1,61843.20%2,09255.86%350.94%-474-12.66%3,745
Richmond City73,62379.09%18,64920.03%8130.88%54,97459.06%93,085
Roanoke19,81238.87%30,57159.97%5921.16%-10,759-21.10%50,975
Roanoke City24,93461.15%15,39437.76%4441.09%9,54023.39%40,772
Rockbridge4,34742.64%5,73256.22%1161.14%-1,385-13.58%10,195
Rockingham10,45331.36%22,46867.40%4131.24%-12,015-36.04%33,334
Russell4,93242.91%6,38955.59%1731.50%-1,457-12.68%11,494
Salem5,16441.63%7,08857.13%1541.24%-1,924-15.50%12,406
Scott2,72527.59%6,98070.68%1701.73%-4,255-43.09%9,875
Shenandoah6,91235.96%12,00562.45%3061.59%-5,093-26.49%19,223
Smyth4,23934.46%7,81763.54%2462.00%-3,578-29.08%12,302
Southampton4,40248.55%4,58350.55%820.90%-181-2.00%9,067
Spotsylvania24,89746.05%28,61052.91%5621.04%-3,713-6.86%54,069
Stafford25,71646.37%29,22152.69%5180.94%-3,505-6.32%55,455
Staunton5,56950.56%5,33048.39%1161.05%2392.17%11,015
Suffolk22,44656.24%17,16543.01%2970.75%5,28113.23%39,908
Surry2,62660.72%1,66338.45%360.83%96322.27%4,325
Sussex3,30161.55%2,02637.78%360.67%1,27523.77%5,363
Tazewell5,59632.80%11,20165.65%2641.55%-5,605-32.85%17,061
Virginia Beach98,88549.14%100,31949.85%2,0451.01%-1,434-0.71%201,249
Warren6,99743.39%8,87955.06%2501.55%-1,882-11.67%16,126
Washington8,06332.91%16,07765.62%3601.47%-8,014-32.71%24,500
Waynesboro3,90644.09%4,81554.35%1391.56%-909-10.26%8,860
Westmoreland4,57754.64%3,71944.40%810.96%85810.24%8,377
Williamsburg4,32863.77%2,35334.67%1060.95%1,97529.10%6,787
Winchester5,26852.02%4,72546.66%1331.32%5435.36%10,126
Wise4,99535.33%8,91463.05%2291.62%-3,919-27.72%14,138
Wythe4,10732.88%8,20765.70%1771.42%-4,100-32.82%12,491
York13,70040.42%19,83358.51%3641.07%-6,133-18.09%33,897
Totals1,959,53252.63%1,725,00546.33%38,7231.04%234,5276.30%3,723,260
County and Independent City Flips:
Democratic
  Hold
  Gain from Republican
Republican
  Hold
  Gain from Democratic
Counties and independent cities that flipped from Democratic to Republican
Counties and independent cities that flipped from Republican to Democratic

By congressional district

[edit]

Barack Obama carried six of the state's 11 congressional districts. Both candidates carried two districts won by the other party.

DistrictMcCainObamaRepresentative
1st51.35%47.67%Jo Ann Davis (110th Congress)
Rob Wittman (111th Congress)
2nd48.48%50.45%Thelma Drake (110th Congress)
Glenn Nye (111th Congress)
3rd23.74%75.52%Bobby Scott
4th48.80%50.33%Randy Forbes
5th50.59%48.29%Virgil Goode (110th Congress)
Tom Perriello (111th Congress)
6th56.93%41.85%Bob Goodlatte
7th53.16%45.89%Eric Cantor
8th29.65%69.28%Jim Moran
9th58.71%39.60%Rick Boucher
10th46.06%52.90%Frank Wolf
11th42.06%57.01%Thomas M. Davis (110th Congress)
Gerry Connolly (111th Congress)

Electors

[edit]
Main article:List of 2008 United States presidential electors

Technically the voters of Virginia cast their ballots for electors: representatives to theElectoral College. Virginia is allocated 13 electors because it has 11congressional districts and 2senators. All candidates who appear on the ballot or qualify to receive write-in votes must submit a list of 13 electors, who pledge to vote for their candidate and his or her running mate. Whoever wins the majority of votes in the state is awarded all 13 electoral votes. Their chosen electors then vote for president and vice president. Although electors are pledged to their candidate and running mate, they are not obligated to vote for them.[30] An elector who votes for someone other than his or her candidate is known as afaithless elector.

The electors of each state and theDistrict of Columbia met on December 15, 2008, to cast their votes for president and vice president. The Electoral College itself never meets as one body. Instead the electors from each state and the District of Columbia met in their respective capitols.

The following were themembers of the Electoral College from the state. All 13 were pledged toBarack Obama andJoe Biden:[31]

  1. Christia Rey
  2. Sandra Brandt
  3. Betty Squire
  4. Susan Johnston Rowland
  5. Marc Finney
  6. Dorothy Blackwell
  7. James Harold Allen Boyd
  8. Marian Van Landingham
  9. Robert Edgar Childress
  10. Rolland Winter
  11. Janet Carver
  12. Michael Jon
  13. Sophie Ann Salley

References

[edit]
  1. ^"Registration/Turnout Reports - Summary of Virginia Registration & Turnout Statistics".Virginia Department of Elections.
  2. ^Skelley, Geoffrey (July 13, 2017)."The New Dominion: Virginia's Ever-Changing Electoral Map".Rasmussen Reports. RetrievedJuly 30, 2020.
  3. ^"Back to the Future - The American Prospect". July 12, 2007. Archived fromthe original on July 12, 2007.
  4. ^Continetti, Matthew (October 2, 2006)."George Allen Monkeys Around".The Weekly Standard. Vol. 12, no. 3. Archived fromthe original on October 28, 2006. RetrievedMay 31, 2009.
  5. ^"D.C.'s Political Report: The complete source for campaign summaries". January 1, 2009. Archived fromthe original on January 1, 2009. RetrievedAugust 23, 2021.
  6. ^"Presidential". May 5, 2015. Archived fromthe original on May 5, 2015. RetrievedAugust 23, 2021.
  7. ^"Vote 2008 - The Takeaway - Track the Electoral College vote predictions". April 22, 2009. Archived fromthe original on April 22, 2009. RetrievedAugust 23, 2021.
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  9. ^abcdBased on Takeaway
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  28. ^Trende, Sean (February 19, 2009)."Virginia Governor's Preview". RealClearPolitics. RetrievedMay 31, 2009.The question in Virginia is always whether the Republican Party can hold together its somewhat unwieldy three-legged coalition of historically Republican Virginians in the mountainous Appalachian western portion of the state, social conservatives in the rural areas east of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and suburbanites in Northern Virginia and in the Richmond/Hampton Roads areas. Why this coalition is having troubles recently could fill a book. For our purposes, we will oversimplify somewhat and observe the following.
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