| 1958 Lebanon crisis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theCold War and theArab Cold War | |||||||
 American Marine in afoxhole outside Beirut | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
Supported by: United States |  Najjadeh Party Progressive Socialist Party Lebanese Communist Party Al-MourabitounSupported by:  United Arab Republic | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Dwight D. Eisenhower | Gamal Abdel Nasser | ||||||
The1958 Lebanon crisis was a political crisis inLebanon caused by political and religious tensions in the country that includedan American military intervention, which lasted for around three months until PresidentCamille Chamoun, who had requested the assistance, completed his term aspresident of Lebanon. American and Lebanese government forces occupied thePort of Beirut andBeirut International Airport. With the crisis over, the United States withdrew.
After the end ofWorld War II in 1945, the United States andSoviet Union were the two major world powers. Two years later, theTruman Doctrine was issued, aimed at containing the spread of communism and the Soviet Union.[1][2] TheCold War is generally considered to have begun around this time.[3] As the world divided into theEastern (communist) andWestern (capitalist) Blocs, a struggle for ideological geopolitical supremacy between the US and USSR emerged. One of the ways it manifested was throughproxy wars in various global regions. One of those regions was theMiddle East, where theArab Cold War took place.[4] After theSuez Crisis in 1956, there was an increase in Arab hostility to the West as well as increased Soviet influence inEgypt andSyria. The crisis also encouragedpan-Arabism and increased the popularity and influence ofGamal Abdel Nasser,President of Egypt. The United States feared that the region was susceptible to the spread of communism.[5]
TheEisenhower Doctrine was announced byPresident of the United StatesDwight D. Eisenhower in January 1957. It pledged American economic and military aid to prevent communism from spreading in the Middle East.[5][6] TheUnited States Congress passed the doctrine on 7 March and it was signed into law on 9 March.[7]James P. Richards began to tour the Middle East and theJoint Chiefs of Staff andUnited States European Command began to make plans for intervention in the region. Their plan centered around theUnited States Sixth Fleet, stationed in theMediterranean Sea, theMiddle East Force and severalAir Force units. 11,000 soldiers were made ready for combat in the region.[8] While the doctrine was never formally invoked,[5] the US supportedHussein of Jordan in 1957 against analleged coup attempt and moved to prevent communism from spreading in Syria.[9]
Thepartition of the Ottoman Empire divided present-day Syria and Lebanon under theMandate for Syria and the Lebanon in 1923.[10] Lebanon completely became an independent nation on 22 November 1943 when the French Mandate formally ended.[11] Around the time of independence, theNational Pact was agreed upon, stating that, among other things, Lebanon was to be a completely independent sovereign state.[12] "The Christians were to forego seeking foreign [...] protection or attempting to bring Lebanon under foreign control or influence. In return, the Muslims were to forego making any attempt to bring Lebanon into any political union with Syria, or into the formation of any Arab Union". The Pact marked a compromise between several religious sects living in the country—namelyMaronite Christians,Sunni Muslims,Shia Muslims,Greek Orthodox Christians,Greek Catholic Christians andDruzes.[13]
Camille Chamoun was elected as the secondPresident of Lebanon in the presidential elections in 1952, replacingBechara El Khoury in the post. Described as "quite openly anti-Communist", the United States viewed Chamoun as "definitely our friend."[14] In 1956, Prime MinisterAbdallah El-Yafi and Minister of StateSaeb Salam resigned in protest due to Chamoun's refusal to condemn the British-French invasion of Egypt during theSuez Crisis. This caused Muslim opposition groups to form the National Union Front in 1957.[15] The United States agreed to provide military assistance to the Lebanese government from 6 June 1957.[16]
In 1957, shortly after the announcement of theEisenhower Doctrine—which Chamoun's regime had been the only Arab government to openly endorse "without reservation"—the United States became concerned that parliamentary elections set for June would result in the election of a parliament that was hostile to the US.[17] Many Muslims in the nation supported Nasser and theUnited Arab Republic (UAR).Kamal Jumblatt andRashid Karami, Druze and Sunni leaders, respectively, condemned Chamoun's support for the doctrine as violating the National Pact.[18] US attempts to influence the election included approving the sending of $12.7 million in military or financial aid and sending operatives from theCentral Intelligence Agency (includingDavid Atlee Phillips,Miles Copeland Jr. andWilbur Eveland) to the region, who provided "campaign contributions" towards pro-West politicians.[19] In late May 1957 pro-Chamoun troops killed seven and wounded seventy-three protesters in Beirut. In the following month, opposition leaders argued that Chamoun "had bought so many votes and gerrymandered so many districts that the balloting would be meaningless." The election was an American success, as fifty-three out of sixty-six parliamentarians supported Chamoun.[17] The US continued to provide aid to Chamoun, fearing Soviet and UAR influence in the region. Chamoun's opponents maintained that the election was invalid and needed to be re-held.[20]
On 8 May 1958 a Lebanese journalist,Nasib Al Matni, was assassinated in his office in Beirut.[21] He was a pro-Nasserist and anti-Chamoun Maronite.[21] Following this incident intensive protests occurred in Beirut andTripoli.[21][22]
In 1958, Camille Chamoun was in the sixth and final year of his term as President of Lebanon.[23]
On 1 February 1958, Syria and Egypt united, forming the UAR.[24][25] The United States feared initially that the new nation would become the dominant power in the Middle East, but recognized it on 25 February after deciding that the UAR could be beneficial in halting communism's spread and keeping Nasser contained.[25] Chamoun andCharles Malik worried that "the peril of subversion in Lebanon" by the UAR "was immediate" and asked for American aid.[26]
Tensions were increasing in Lebanon throughout early 1958. Although Chamoun's term would have expired on 23 September 1958, he intended to run for president again, which was not permitted in theConstitution of Lebanon, and asked for American support in his effort.[26][27][28] While the United States feared that a movement against Chamoun could harm their interests in the region, they were reluctant to withdraw support for him, asFouad Chehab, the chief of staff of theLebanese Army, was the most likely figure to succeed Chamoun.Robert M. McClintock, American ambassador to Lebanon, described Chehab as "a neutral legume who would require careful pruning to grow in the right direction."[29] As a result, the US did not formally support Chamoun's effort.[30]
Protests by various groups—mainly the Sunnis and the Druzes—began in February against the Christian Chamoun, who had also aligned himself in support of the US and Britain, actions that protesters considered breaches of the National Pact.[31] Demonstrations also protested that Chamoun had not allowed Lebanon to join the UAR.[23] The protesters felt that "Chamoun was not willing to modify his foreign policy unless he was forced to."[32] Tensions between Maronite Christians and Arab Muslims continued to rise after the killing of Nasib Al Matni on 8 May. Matni was the editor ofAl Telegraf and had been critical of Chamoun's rule.[27][28] Fighting erupted on the streets of Beirut as a Muslim mob burned theUS Information Service library down. Heightened tensions existed around the country, including in theBeqaa Valley, where Shia militants were receiving weapons from Syria.[33]The New York Times dated the beginning of a formal armed rebellion to 10 May 1958.[34] Chamoun requested American military intervention in early May against the threat to his power under the Eisenhower Doctrine, although McClintock noted that there was an "absence of overt Communist aggression".[35]
The leader of the UAR, Nasser, began publicly calling for Arab unity. Various nations, including Lebanon, blamed Nasser's actions for the increase in sectarian unrest, and the Lebanese government filed a formal complaint to theUnited Nations Security Council (UNSC) on 22 May 1958, accusing the UAR of meddling in the nation's affairs.[36] The UNSC passed a resolution on 11 June 1958 that recommended sending a group to Lebanon "to ensure that there is no illegal infiltration of personnel or supply of arms or other material across the Lebanese borders". A "Group of Three"—Galo Plaza,Rajeshwar Dayal andOdd Bull—Dag Hammarskjöld, theSecretary-General of the United Nations, and members of theUnited Nations Truce Supervision Organization were soon dispatched to Lebanon to form theUnited Nations Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL).[37][38]
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Eisenhower responded by authorizing theAmerican military interventionOperation Blue Bat on 15 July 1958, in the first application of the Eisenhower Doctrine in which the U.S. announced that it would intervene to protect regimes that it considered to be threatened by international communism.[39] Following a bloody coup in Iraq that killed the pro-american King Faisal II, and the uncovering of a plot against the King of Jordan, the goal of the operation was to bolster Chamoun's pro-Western Lebanese government from internal opposition and threats from Syria and Egypt.[40] The plan was to occupy and secureBeirut International Airport, a few miles south of the city, and then to secure the port of Beirut and the approaches to the city.
The chain of command for Operation Blue Bat was as follows: the Eisenhower administration at the strategic level; Specified Command, Middle East (SPECCOMME, a 'double-hat' for Commander in Chief, U.S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean) at the operational level; the U.S. Sixth Fleet, with aircraft carriersUSS Saratoga,USS Essex andUSS Wasp, cruisersUSS Des Moines andUSS Boston, and twodestroyer squadrons, including theUSS The Sullivans DD-537,USS Leary,USS Vesole and theUSS William M. Wood. At the end of June,Essex andBoston were anchored atPiraeus,Greece, whileDes Moines, from which Vice AdmiralCharles R. Brown was flying his flag, was atVillefranche-sur-Mer,France.[41] Land forces included the 2nd Provisional Marine Force (Task Force 62) and theUnited States Army Task Force 201 at the tactical level.[42] Each of these three components influenced Operations Plan 215-58 and its execution.
The operation involved more than 14,000 men, including 8,509 US Army personnel, a contingent from the 1st Airborne Battle Group,187th Infantry from the24th Infantry Division and 5,670 officers and men of theUnited States Marine Corps (the 2nd Provisional Marine Force, of Battalion Landing Teams1st Battalion, 8th Marines and2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines under Brigadier GeneralSidney S. Wade). The2nd Battalion, 8th Marines arrived on 16 July after a 54-hour airlift fromCherry Point,North Carolina.[43] They were supported by a fleet of 70 ships and 40,000 sailors.[44] On 16 July 1958, AdmiralJames L. Holloway Jr., CINCNELM and CINCSPECCOMME, flew in from London to Beirut airport and boardedUSS Taconic from which he commanded the remainder of the operation.[45] The US withdrew its forces on 25 October 1958.[46]
Eisenhower sent the diplomatRobert Daniel Murphy to Lebanon as his personal representative.[39] Murphy played a significant role in convincing both sides of the conflict to reach a compromise by electing the moderate Christian generalFouad Chehab as incoming president, but allowing Chamoun to continue in power until the end of his term, on 22 September.[39]
Lebanese Prime MinisterRashid Karami formed a national reconciliation government after the end of the 1958 crisis.[47]
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
