The1900s (pronounced "nineteen-hundreds") was thedecade that began on January 1, 1900, and ended on December 31, 1909. TheEdwardian era (1901–1910) covers a similar span of time. The term "nineteen-hundreds" is sometimes also used to mean the entire century from January 1, 1900, to December 31, 1999 (the years beginning with "19").
During the decade, the world population increased from 1.60 to 1.75 billion, with approximately 580 million births and 450 million deaths in total. As of November 2025, the only remaining living person born in this decade isEthel Caterham, born August 21, 1909. The last living man from this decade wasJuan Vicente Pérez (May 27, 1909 – April 2, 2024).
There are several main varieties of how individual years of the decade are pronounced. Using 1906 as an example, they are "nineteen-oh-six", "nineteen-six", and "nineteen-aught-six". Which variety is most prominent depends somewhat on global region and generation. "Nineteen-oh-six" is the most common; "nineteen-six" is less common. InAmerican English, "nineteen-aught-six" is also recognized but not much used.[citation needed]
June 30, 1900 –Hoboken Docks Fire: The German passenger shipsSaale,Main, Bremen, andKaiser William der Grosse, all owned by theNorth German Lloyd Steamship line, catch fire at the docks inHoboken, New Jersey, US. The fire began on a wharf and spread to the adjacent piers, warehouses, and smaller craft, killing 326 people.
A group of farmers paid 30,000 drachmas to a supervisor named Kyriakou to kill Antypas, which he did on March 8, 1907. Kyriakou was never convicted for the crime.
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Thegold standard was the dominant international monetary system in the 1900s, with all major industrial powers operating under its rules and exchange rates between major currencies remaining fixed.[21]
Colonial economic relationships significantly shaped global economic patterns, with European powers establishing colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, extracting resources such as cotton, rubber, ivory, gold, and diamonds, and imposing trade policies designed to benefit the colonizers at the expense of the colonized populations.[22]
Germany's industrial growth was quick during this period. From 1895 to 1907, the number of workers in machine building doubled from slightly more than half a million to well over a million. German steel production, which had exceeded Britain's in 1893, continued to grow, and by the end of the decade Germany dominated all major Continental markets except France.[24]
Russia experienced rapid economic growth from 1900 to 1905, with the economy expanding at 4 percent annually. However, in 1905, the Russian economy went into a severe slump following an unprecedented wave of worker strikes, peasant protests, and military defeat in theRusso-Japanese War.[25]
TheUnited Kingdom's economic dominance was increasingly challenged during this decade. While Britain remained the world's largest capital exporter and shipping power, both the United States and Germany surpassed Britain in industrial production, particularly in steel manufacturing.[21]
ThePanic of 1907, also known as the 1907 Bankers' Panic, was a significant financial crisis that occurred in the United States when the stock market fell close to 50% from its peak the previous year. The crisis spread to other countries and was eventually resolved through interventions led by J.P. Morgan.[26]
France was a major capital exporter during this period, lending substantial portions of GDP to developing economies. The country implemented significant labor reforms, including the introduction of a mandatory weekly rest day in 1906 and the creation of theMinistry of Labour the same year.[27]
InJapan, the victory in theRusso-Japanese War (1904–1905) accelerated industrial development. Under the leadership of Prime MinisterKatsura Tarō, Japan expanded its heavy industry, particularly in shipbuilding and armaments, and strengthened its position as an emerging economic power in Asia. However this growth was coupled with a surge in labour disputes.[28]
Germany's urbanization accelerated rapidly, with only 40 percent of Germans living in rural areas by 1910, compared to 67 percent at the birth of the empire. Cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants accounted for one-fifth of the population by the end of the decade.[29]
Italy's economy during this decade was characterized by the growing industrialization in the north, while the southern regions remained predominantly agricultural. Prime MinisterGiovanni Giolitti's economic policies encouraged industrial growth, particularly in the automotive and textile sectors.[30]
Russia's economy began growing again from 1909 following the political and economic crisis of 1905–1907. This recovery continued until the outbreak of World War I, though Russia remained the poorest of the great powers.[31]
The cost of an American postage stamp was 1 cent in 1909.[32]
March 17, 1905 –Annus Mirabilis papers –Albert Einstein publishes his paper "On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the production and transformation of light", in which he explains thephotoelectric effect, using the notion oflight quanta. For this paper Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
May 11, 1905 –Annus Mirabilis papers – Albert Einstein submits his doctoral dissertation "On the Motion of Small Particles...", in which he explainsBrownian motion.
June 30, 1905 –Annus Mirabilis papers – Albert Einstein publishes the article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", where he reveals his theory ofspecial relativity.
September 27, 1905 –Annus Mirabilis papers – Albert Einstein submits his paper "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", in which he develops an argument for the equationE = mc2.
Wide popularity of homephonograph. "The market for home machines was created through technological innovation and pricing: Phonographs, gramophones, and graphophones were cleverly adapted to run by spring-motors (you wound them up), rather than by messy batteries or treadle mechanisms, while the musical records were adapted to reproduce loudly through a horn attachment. The cheap home machines sold as the $10 Eagle graphophone and the $40 (later $30) Home phonograph in 1896, the $20 Zon-o-phone in 1898, the $3 Victor Toy in 1900, and so on. Records sold because their fidelity improved, mass production processes were soon developed, advertising worked, and prices dropped from one and two dollars to around 35 cents.".[40][41] In 1907, aVictor Records recording ofEnrico Caruso singingRuggero Leoncavallo's "Vesti la giubba" becomes the first to sell a million copies.[42]
1899–1900 –Thomas Alva Edison ofMilan, Ohio, invents the nickel-alkaline storagebattery. On May 27, 1901, Edison establishes theEdison Storage Battery Company to develop and manufacture them.[43] "It proved to be Edison's most difficult project, taking ten years to develop a practical alkaline battery. By the time Edison introduced his new alkaline battery, thegasoline powered car had so improved thatelectric vehicles were becoming increasingly less common, being used mainly asdelivery vehicles in cities. However, the Edison alkaline battery proved useful for lightingrailway cars andsignals, maritimebuoys, andminers lamps. Unlikeiron ore mining with theEdison Ore-Milling Company, the heavy investment Edison made over ten years was repaid handsomely, and the storage battery eventually became Edison's most profitable product. Further, Edison's work paved the way for the modern alkaline battery."[44]
1900 – TheBrowniecamera is invented; this was the beginning of theEastman Kodak company. The Brownie popularized low-costphotography and introduced the concept of thesnapshot. The first Brownie was introduced in February 1900,[45]
The first ascent of LZ1 over Lake Constance (the Bodensee) in 1900.
1901 – The first radioreceiver (successfully received a radio transmission). This receiver was developed byGuglielmo Marconi. Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House,Rosslare Strand,County Wexford, Ireland in 1901 to act as a link betweenPoldhu inCornwall andClifden inCounty Galway. He soon made the announcement that on December 12, 1901, using a 500-foot (150 m) kite-supported antenna for reception, the message was received atSignal Hill inSt John's,Newfoundland (now part of Canada), signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The distance between the two points was about 2,200 miles (3,500 km). Heralded as a great scientific advance, there was—and continues to be—some skepticism about this claim, partly because the signals had been heard faintly and sporadically. There was no independent confirmation of the reported reception, and the transmissions, consisting of theMorse code letterS sent repeatedly, were difficult to distinguish fromatmospheric noise. (A detailed technical review of Marconi's early transatlantic work appears in John S. Belrose's work of 1995.)[51] The Poldhu transmitter was a two-stage circuit.[52][53] The first stage operated at a lower voltage and provided the energy for the second stage to spark at a higher voltage.
1902 –Willis Carrier ofAngola, New York, invented the first indoorair conditioning. "He designed his spray driven air conditioning system which controlled both temperature and humidity using anozzle originally designed to sprayinsecticide. He built his "Apparatus for Treating Air" (U.S. Pat. #808897) which was patented in 1906 and using chilled coils which not only controlled heat but could lower the humidity to as low as 55%. The device was even able to adjust the humidity level to the desired setting creating what would become the framework for the modern air conditioner. By adjusting the air movement and temperature level to the refrigeration coils he was able to determine the size and capacity of the unit to match the need of his customers. While Carrier was not the first to design a system like this his was much more stable, successful and safer than other versions and took air conditioning out of the Dark Ages and into the realm of science."[54]
1902/1906/1908 –Sir James Mackenzie ofScone, Scotland, invented an earlylie detector orpolygraph. MacKenzie's polygraph "could be used to monitor thecardiovascular responses of his patients by taking theirpulse andblood pressure.[55] He had developed an early version of his device in the 1890s, but had Sebastian Shaw, aLancashire watchmaker, improve it further. "This instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-marker movements and it produced ink recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret. It has been written that the modern polygraph is really a modification of Dr. Mackenzie's clinical ink polygraph."[56] A more modern and effective polygraph machine would be invented by John Larson in 1921.[57]
1902 –Georges Claude invented theneon lamp. He applied an electrical discharge to a sealed tube ofneon gas, resulting in a red glow. Claudes started working on neon tubes which could be put to use as ordinary light bulbs. His first public display of a neon lamp took place on December 11, 1910, in Paris.[58] In 1912, Claude's associate began selling neon discharge tubes asadvertising signs. They were introduced to the United States in 1923 when two large neon signs were bought by a Los AngelesPackard car dealership. The glow and arresting red color made neon advertising completely different from the competition.[59]
1902 –Teasmade, a device for makingtea automatically, is patented on April 7, 1902, bygunsmith Frank Clarke ofBirmingham, England. He called it "An Apparatus Whereby a Cup of Tea or Coffee is Automatically Made" and it was later marketed as "A Clock That Makes Tea!". However, his original machine and all rights to it had been purchased from its actual inventorAlbert E. Richardson, aclockmaker fromAshton-under-Lyne. The device was commercially available by 1904.[60]
Gilmore's second, larger plane
1902 –Lyman Gilmore ofWashington, United States is awarded a patent for asteam engine, intended for use in aerial vehicles. At the time he was living inRed Bluff, California. At a later date, Gilmore claimed to have incorporated his engine in "amonoplane with a 32-footwingspan" and to have performed his debut flight in May 1902. While occasionally credited with the first powered flight in aviation history, there is no supporting evidence for his account.[61] While Gilmore was probably working on aeronautical experiments since the late 1890s and reportedly had correspondence withSamuel Pierpont Langley, there exists no photo of his creations earlier than 1908.[62]
1902 – TheWright brothers ofOhio, United States create the 1902 version of theWright Glider. It was the third free-flight glider built by them and tested atKitty Hawk, North Carolina. This was the first of the brothers' gliders to incorporateyaw control, and its design led directly to the1903Wright Flyer. The brothers designed the 1902 glider during the winter of 1901–1902 at their home inDayton, Ohio. They designed the wing based on data from extensive airfoil tests conducted on a homemadewind tunnel. They built many of the components of the glider in Dayton, but they completed assembly at their Kitty Hawk camp in September 1902. They began testing on September 19. Over the next five weeks, they made between 700 and 1000 glide flights (as estimated by the brothers, who did not keep detailed records of these tests). The longest of these was 622.5 ft (189.7 m) in 26 seconds. "In its final form, the 1902 Wright glider was the world's first fully controllable aircraft."[63][64]
1903 –Richard Pearse of New Zealand supposedly successfully flew and landed a powered heavier-than-air machine on March 31, 1903[65] Verifiable eyewitnesses describe Pearse crashing into a hedge on two separate occasions during 1903. His monoplane must have risen to a height of at least three metres on each occasion. Good evidence exists that on March 31, 1903, Pearse achieved a powered, though poorly controlled, flight of several hundred metres. Pearse himself said that he had made a powered takeoff, "but at too low a speed for [his] controls to work". However, he remained airborne until he crashed into the hedge at the end of the field.[66][67]
1903 –Karl Jatho ofGermany performs a series of flights at Vahrenwalder Heide, nearHanover, between August and November, 1903. Using first a pushertriplane, then abiplane. "His longest flight, however, was only 60 meters at 3–4 meters altitude." He then quit his efforts, noting his motor was too weak to make longer or higher flights.[68] The plane was equipped with a single-cylinder 10 hp (7.5 kW) Buchet engine driving a two-bladed pusher propeller and made hops of up to 200 ft (61 m), flying up to 10 ft (3.0 m) high. In comparison, Orville Wright's first controlled flight four months later was of 36 m (118 ft) in 12 seconds although Wilbur flew 59 seconds and 852 ft (260 m) later that same day. Either way Jatho managed to fly a powered heavier-than-air machine earlier than his American counterparts.[69]
1903 –Mary Anderson inventedwindshield wipers. In November 1903 Anderson was granted her firstpatent[70] for an automatic car window cleaning device controlled inside the car, called the windshield wiper.[71] Her device consisted of a lever and a swinging arm with a rubber blade. The lever could be operated from inside a vehicle to cause the spring-loaded arm to move back and forth across the windshield. Similar devices had been made earlier, but Anderson's was the first to be effective.[72]
The first flight byOrville Wright made on December 17, 1903.
1903 – TheWright brothers fly atKitty Hawk, North Carolina. Their airplane, theWright Flyer, performed the first recorded controlled, powered, sustained heavier than air flight on December 17, 1903. In the day's fourth flight, Wilbur Wright flew 279 meters (915 feet) in 59 seconds. First three flights were approximately 120, 175, and 200 ft (61 m), respectively. The Wrights laid particular stress on fully and accurately describing all the requirements for controlled, powered flight and put them into use in an aircraft which took off from a level launching rail, with the aid of a headwind to achieve sufficient airspeed before reaching the end of the rail.[73] It is one of the various candidates regarded as the first flying machine.
1904 –SS Haimun sends its first news story on March 15, 1904.[74] It was a Chinesesteamer ship commanded bywar correspondentLionel James in 1904 during theRusso-Japanese War forThe Times. It is the first known instance of a "press boat" dedicated to war correspondence during naval battles. The recent advent ofwireless telegraphy meant that reporters were no longer limited to submitting their stories from land-based offices, and The Times spent 74 days outfitting and equipping the ship,[75] installing aDe Forest transmitter aboard the ship.[76]
Construction work on theGaillard Cut is shown in this photograph from 1907
1904–1914 – ThePanama Canal constructed by the United States in the territory ofPanama, which hadjust gained independence fromColombia. The Canal is a 77 km (48 mi)ship canal that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and a key conduit for international maritime trade. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the canal had an enormous impact on shipping between the two oceans, replacing the long and treacherous route via theDrake Passage andCape Horn at the southernmost tip of South America. A ship sailing from New York toSan Francisco via the canal travels 9,500 km (5,900 mi), well under half the 22,500 km (14,000 mi) route around Cape Horn.[77] The project starts on May 4, 1904, known as Acquisition Day. The United States government purchased all Canal properties on theIsthmus of Panama from the New Panama Canal Company, except thePanama Railroad.[78] The project begun under the administration ofTheodore Roosevelt, continued in that ofWilliam Howard Taft and completed in that ofWoodrow Wilson.[79][80] The Chief engineers wereJohn Frank Stevens andGeorge Washington Goethals[81][82]
1904 – TheWelte-Mignonreproducing piano is created by Edwin Welte and Karl Bockisch. Both employed by the "Michael Welte und Söhne" firm ofFreiburg im Breisgau,Germany. "It automatically replayed the tempo, phrasing, dynamics and pedalling of a particular performance, and not just the notes of the music, as was the case with other player pianos of the time." In September, 1904, the Mignon was demonstrated in theLeipzig Trade Fair. In March, 1905 it became better known when showcased "at theshowrooms of Hugo Popper, a manufacturer of roll-operatedorchestrions". By 1906, the Mignon was also exported to the United States, installed to pianos by the firmsFeurich andSteinway & Sons.[83]
1905 –John Joseph Montgomery ofCalifornia, United States designs tandem-winggliders. His pilotDaniel Maloney performs a number of public exhibitions of high altitude flights in March and April 1905 in theSanta Clara, California, area. These flights received national media attention and demonstrated superior control of the design, with launches as high as 4,000 feet (1,200 m) and landings made at predetermined locations. The gliders were launched from balloons.[85][86]
1905 – The Wright Brothers introduce theirWright Flyer III. On October 5, 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds,[87] longer than the total duration of all the flights of1903 and1904. Ending with a safe landing when the fuel ran out. The flight was seen by a number of people, including several invited friends, their father Milton, and neighboring farmers.[88] Four days later, they wrote to theUnited States Secretary of WarWilliam Howard Taft, offering to sell the world's first practical fixed-wing aircraft.
1906 – TheGabel Automatic Entertainer, an earlyjukebox-like machine, is invented by John Gabel. It is the first such device to play a series of gramophone records. "The Automatic Entertainer with 24 selections, was produced and patented by the John Gabel owned company in Chicago. The first model (constructed in 1905) was produced in 1906 with an exposed 40 inch horn (102 cm) on top, and it is today often considered the real father of the modern multi-selection disc-playing phonographs. John Gabel and his company did in fact receive a special prize at thePan-Pacific Exposition for the Automatic Entertainer."[89][90]
Alberto Santos-Dumont realizes the first official flight, October 23, 1906, Bagatelle field.
1906 – TheVictor Talking Machine Company releases theVictrola, the most populargramophone model until the late 1920s.[91] The Victrola is also the firstplayback machine containing an internal horn.[92] Victor also erects the world's largest illuminated billboard at the time, onBroadway in New York City, to advertise the company's records.[93]
1906 –Traian Vuia ofRomania takes off with his "Traian Vuia 1", an earlymonoplane. His flight was performed inMontesson near Paris and was about 12 meters long.[94]
1906 –Jacob Ellehammer of Denmark constructs theEllehammer semi-biplane. In this machine, he made a tethered flight on September 12, 1906, becoming the second European to make a powered flight.[95][96][97]
1906 –Alberto Santos-Dumont and hisSantos-Dumont 14-bis make the first public flight of anairplane on October 23, 1906, in Paris. The flying machine was the first fixed-wing aircraft officially witnessed to take off, fly, and land. Santos Dumont is considered the "Father of Aviation" in his country of birth,Brazil.[98] His flight is the first to have been certified by theAéro-Club de France and theFédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI).[99][100] On November 12, 1906, Santos Dumont succeeded in setting the first world record recognized by the Aero-Club De France by flying 220 metres in less than 22 seconds.[101]
1906 – Soundradio broadcasting was invented byReginald Fessenden andLee De Forest. Fessenden andErnst Alexanderson developed a high-frequencyalternator-transmitters, an improvement on an already existing device. The improved model operated at a transmitting frequency of approximately 50 kHz, although with far less power than Fessenden's rotary-spark transmitters. The alternator-transmitter achieved the goal of transmitting quality audio signals, but the lack of any way to amplify the signals meant they were somewhat weak. On December 21, 1906, Fessenden made an extensive demonstration of the new alternator-transmitter at Brant Rock, showing its utility for point-to-point wireless telephony, including interconnecting his stations to the wire telephone network. A detailed review of this demonstration appeared inThe American Telephone Journal.[102] Meanwhile, De Forest had developed theAudion tube an electronicamplifier device. He received a patent in January, 1907.[103] "DeForest's audion vacuum tube was the key component of all radio, telephone, radar, television, and computer systems before the invention of the transistor in 1947."[104]
1906 –Reginald Fessenden ofEast Bolton, Quebec, Canada made what appear to be the first audio radio broadcasts of entertainment and music ever made to a general audience. (Beginning in 1904, theUnited States Navy had broadcast daily time signals and weather reports, but these employedspark-gap transmitters, transmitting inMorse code). On the evening of December 24, 1906 (Christmas Eve), Fessenden used the alternator-transmitter to send out a short program fromBrant Rock,Plymouth County,Massachusetts. It included a phonograph record ofOmbra mai fù (Largo) byGeorge Frideric Handel, followed by Fessenden himself playing the songO Holy Night on theviolin. Finishing with reading a passage from theBible: 'Glory to God in the highest and on earth peace to men of good will' (Gospel of Luke 2:14). On December 31,New Year's Eve, a second short program was broadcast. The main audience for both these transmissions was an unknown number of shipboard radio operators along theEast Coast of the United States. Fessenden claimed that the Christmas Eve broadcast had been heard "as far down" asNorfolk, Virginia, while the New Year Eve's broadcast had reached places in the Caribbean. Although now seen as a landmark, these two broadcasts were barely noticed at the time and soon forgotten— the only first-hand account appears to be a letter Fessenden wrote on January 29, 1932, to his former associate, Samuel M. Kinter.[105][106]
TheAutochrome Lumière becomes the first commercial color photography process.
1907 – TheAutochrome Lumière which was patented in 1903 becomes the first commercial color photography process.
1907 –Thomas Edison invented the "Universal Electric Motor" which made it possible to operatedictation machines, etc. on all lighting circuits.[107]
1907 – ThePhotostat machine begins the modern era of document imaging. The Photostat machine was invented inKansas City,Kansas, United States by Oscar Gregory in 1907, and the Photostat Corporation was incorporated inRhode Island in 1911. "Rectigraph and Photostat machines (Plates 40–42) combined a large camera and a developing machine and used sensitized paper furnished in 350-foot rolls. "The prints are made direct on sensitized paper, no negative, plate or film intervening. The usual exposure is ten seconds. After the exposure has been made the paper is cut off and carried underneath the exposure chamber to the developing bath, where it remains for 35 seconds, and is then drawn into a fixing bath. While one print is being developed or fixed, another exposure can be made. When the copies are removed from the fixing bath, they are allowed to dry by exposure to the air, or may be run through a drying machine. The first print taken from the original is a 'black' print; the whites in the original are black and the blacks, white. (Plate 43) A white 'positive' print of the original is made by rephotographing the black print. As many positives as required may be made by continuing to photograph the black print." (The American Digest of Business Machines, 1924.) Du Pont Co. files include black prints of graphs dating from 1909, and the company acquired a Photostat machine in 1912. ... A 1914 Rectigraph ad stated that the US government had been using Rectigraphs for four years and stated that the machines were being used by insurance companies and abstract and title companies. ... In 1911, a Photostat machine was $500."[108][109]
Ford Model T set 1908 as the historic year that the automobile came into popular usage as it is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile.
1908 –Henry Ford of theFord Motor Company introduces theFord Model T. The first production Model T was built on September 27, 1908, at theFord Piquette Avenue Plant inDetroit. It is generally regarded as the first affordable automobile, the car that "put America on wheels"; some of this was because of Ford's innovations, includingassembly line production instead of individual hand crafting, as well as the concept of paying the workers a wage proportionate to the cost of the car, so that they would provide a ready made market.[110]
April 2, 1902 –Electric Theatre, the firstmovie theater in the United States, opens inLos Angeles.
The first huge success of American cinema, as well as the largest experimental achievement to this point, was the 1903 filmThe Great Train Robbery, directed byEdwin S. Porter.
December 18, 1909 –George Enescu'sOctet for Strings and Piano Quartet No. 1 in D Major are premiered together on a program also featuring hisSept chansons de Clement Marot, Op. 15, at the Salle des agriculteurs in Paris, as part of the "Soirées d'Art" concert series.
New Haven, Connecticut Louis Lassen ofLouis' Lunch makes the first modern-dayhamburgersandwich. According to family legend, one day in 1900 a local businessman dashed into the small New Haven lunch wagon and pleaded for a lunch to go. According to the Lassen family, the customer, Gary Widmore, exclaimed "Louie! I'm in a rush, slap a meatpuck between two planks and step on it!".[122][123] Louis Lassen, the establishment's owner, placed his own blend of ground steak trimmings between two slices of toast and sent the gentleman on his way, so the story goes, with America's alleged first hamburger being served.[124]
Since the deaths ofOkagi Hayashi of Japan on 26 April 2025 andInah Canabarro Lucas of Brazil on 30 April 2025, there is one remaining verified living person born in the 1900s decade,Ethel Caterham (born 21 August 1909) of the United Kingdom.[125][126] The last surviving man born during this decade wasJuan Vicente Pérez of Venezuela (27 May 1909 – 2 April 2024).[127]
^"I suggest that it is impossible to separate deaths caused by massacre and starvation from those due to the pandemic of sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) which decimated central Africa at the time." -Neal Ascherson (1999)[1]
^Angus Maddison, 2003,The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Vol. 2, OECD, ParisArchived May 13, 2008, at theWayback MachineISBN92-64-10412-7."Statistical Appendix"Archived January 30, 2021, at theWayback Machine (2008, ggdc.net) "The historical data were originally developed in three books: Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, OECD, Paris 1995; The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2001; The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2003. All these contain detailed source notes. Figures for 1820 onwards are annual, wherever possible. For earlier years, benchmark figures are shown for 1 AD, 1000 AD, 1500, 1600 and 1700." "OECD countries GDP revised and updated 1991-2003 from National Accounts for OECD Countries, vol. I, 2006. Norway 1820-1990 GDP from Ola Grytten (2004), "The Gross Domestic Product for Norway, 1830-2003" in Eitrheim, Klovland and Qvigstad (eds), Historical Monetary Statistics for Norway, 1819-2003, Norges Bank, Oslo. Latin American GDP 2000-2003 revised and updated from ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook 2004 and preliminary version of the 2005 Yearbook supplied by Andre Hofman. For Chile, GDP 1820-2003 from Rolf Lűders (1998), "The Comparative Economic Performance of Chile 1810-1995", Estudios de Economia, vol. 25, no. 2, with revised population estimates from Diaz, J., R. Lűders, and G. Wagner (2005) Chili 1810-2000: la Republica en Cifras, mimeo, Instituto de Economia, Universidad Católica de Chile. For Peru, GDP 1896-1990 and population 1896-1949 from Bruno Seminario and Arlette Beltran, Crecimiento Economico en el Peru 1896-1995, Universidad del Pacifico, 1998. " "For Asia there are amendments to the GDP estimates for South and North Korea, 1911-74, to correct an error in Maddison (2003). Estimates for the Philippines, 1902-1940 were amended in line with Richard Hooley (2005), 'American Economic Policy in the Philippines, 1902-1940', Journal of Asian Economics, 16. 1820 estimates were amended for Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand." "Asian countries GDP revised and updated 1998-2003 from AsianOutlook, April 2005. Population estimates for all countries except China and Indonesia revised and updated 1950-2008 and 2030 from International Data Base, International Programs Center, Population Division, US Bureau of the Census, April 2005 version. China's population 1990-2003 from China Statistical Yearbook 2005, China Statistics Press, Beijing. Indonesian population 1950-2003 kindly supplied by Pierre van der Eng. The figures now include three countries previously omitted: Cook Islands, Nauru and Tuvalu."
^Klein Goldewijk, K., A. Beusen, M. de Vos and G. van Drecht (2011). The HYDE 3.1 spatially explicit database of human induced land use change over the past 12,000 years, Global Ecology and Biogeography20(1): 73-86.doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00587.x (pbl.nlArchived April 23, 2021, at theWayback Machine). HYDE (History Database of the Global Environment), 2010. HYDE 3.1 gives estimates for 5000 BC, 1000 BC and "AD 0". HYDE estimates are higher than those byColin McEvedy (1978) but lower than those by Massimo Livi Bacci (1989, 2012). (graphs (itbulk.org)).
^Slightly updated data from original paper in French: (a) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13. Original paper in French: (b) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1979, "Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes", Population, Vol. 34 (no. 1), pp. 13–25.
^Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1978,Atlas of World Population History, Facts on File, New York,ISBN0-7139-1031-3.
^Ralph Thomlinson, 1975,Demographic Problems: Controversy over population control, 2nd Ed., Dickenson Publishing Company, Ecino, CA,ISBN0-8221-0166-1.
^John D. Durand, 1974, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation", University of Pennsylvania, Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10.
^Colin Clark, 1967,Population Growth and Land Use, St. Martin's Press, New York,ISBN0-333-01126-0.
^Data fromHistory Database of the Global Environment.Archived February 27, 2018, at theWayback Machine K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Beusen and P. Janssen, "HYDE 3.1: Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way", from table on pg. 2, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
^Pasechnik, I. P. (1986). "Refinement of the moment of explosion of the Tunguska meteorite from the seismic data".Cosmic Matter and the Earth (in Russian). Novosibirsk: Nauka. p. 66.
^Duggan, Christopher (2007).The Force of Destiny. A History of Italy Since 1796. Allen Lane. p. 349.ISBN9780713997095.
^"Kaiser Hit by a Missile Thrown into His Carriage",Chicago Daily Tribune, March 7, 1901, p. 1.
^"Kaiser Suffers from His Wound— Injuries Received by German Emperor More Serious than First Reported— Details of the Assault",Chicago Daily Tribune, March 8, 1901, p. 2.
^"FDIC: Learning Bank". January 26, 2010. Archived from the original on January 26, 2010. RetrievedMarch 13, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^"The most thorough account of the history of the phonograph is still Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis, IN: Howard W. Sams & Co., 1976). For a recent version of the story see Leonard DeGraaf, "Thomas Edison and the Origins of the Entertainment Phonograph" NARAS Journal 8 (Winter/Spring 1997/8) 43–69, as well as William Howland Kenney's recent and welcome Recorded Music in American Life: The Phonograph and Popular Memory, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Much of the technocentric focus of literature on the phonograph (a focus Kenney's cultural history finally shifts) may derive from the interests of collectors, for whom I have the utmost respect. In the interest of simplicity, I am going to use the eventual American generic, "phonograph," for the graphophone and gramophone as well as the phonograph. Of course in Britain and much of the postcolonial world, the generic is "gramophone.""
^Sharpe, Michael (2000).Biplanes, Triplanes and Seaplanes. Friedman/Fairfax. p. 311.ISBN978-1-58663-300-4.
^Dayton Metro LibraryArchived 2009-09-05 at theWayback Machine Note: Dayton Metro Library has a document showing durations, distances and a list of witnesses to the long flights in late September-early October 1905. Retrieved: May 23, 2007.
^The life of John Gabel (1872–1955) and the history of his company is described in detail in an article well written by Rick Crandall. The article entitled "Diary Disclosures of John Gabel: A Pioneer in Automatic Music", based on an unpublished diary, was published in the autumn, 1984, newsletter of The Musical Box Society International (Vol. XXX, No. 2), and contains a lot of interesting historic information. Another story about John Gabel and his Automatic Entertainer appeared in the newsletter "Antique Phonograph Monthly" (Vol. VII, No. 8) published by Allen Koenigsberg in the summer, 1984.
^Winter, Frank H.; Linden, F. Robert Van Der (2003).100 Years of Flight: A Chronology of Aerospace History, 1903–2003. Library of Flight Series.AIAA.ISBN1-56347-562-6.
^American Institute of Chemical Engineers Staff (1977).Twenty-Five Years of Chemical Engineering Progress. Ayer Publishing. p. 216.ISBN978-0-8369-0149-8.
Prices and Wages by Decade: 1900s—Research guide from the University of Missouri Library shows average wages for various occupations and prices for common items from 1900 to 1909.
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