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18th century

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
One hundred years, from 1701 to 1800
For other uses, see18th century (disambiguation).
Millennia
2nd millennium
Centuries
Timelines
State leaders
Decades
Categories:
Births –Deaths
Establishments –Disestablishments
Political boundaries at the beginning of year 1700
Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789, an iconic event of theFrench Revolution.
Development of theWatt steam engine in the late 18th century was an important element in theIndustrial Revolution in Europe.
TheAmerican Revolutionary War took place in the late 18th century.

The18th century lasted from 1 January1701 (represented by theRoman numerals MDCCI) to 31 December1800 (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements ofEnlightenment thinking culminated in theAtlantic Revolutions. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures. TheIndustrial Revolution began mid-century, leading to radical changes inhuman society and theenvironment. TheEuropean colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of theAge of Sail. During the century,slave trading expanded across the shores of theAtlantic Ocean, while declining inRussia[1] andChina.[2]

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death ofLouis XIV of France and the start of theFrench Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.[3][4] To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century[5] may run from theGlorious Revolution of 1688 to theBattle of Waterloo in 1815[6] or even later.[7] France was the sole worldsuperpower from 1659, after it defeatedSpain, until 1815, when it was defeated byBritain and its coalitions following theNapoleonic Wars.

InEurope, philosophers ushered in the Age of Enlightenment. This period coincided with the French Revolution of 1789, and was later compromised by the excesses of theReign of Terror. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose theFrench Republic in theFrench Revolutionary Wars. Various conflicts throughout the century, including theWar of the Spanish Succession and theSeven Years' War, sawGreat Britain triumph over its rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's attempts to exert its authority over theThirteen Colonies became a catalyst for theAmerican Revolution. The 18th century also marked the end of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to preventpartition by the neighboring states ofAustria,Prussia, and Russia.

InWest Asia,Nader Shah ledPersia in successfulmilitary campaigns. TheOttoman Empire experienced a period of peace, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century.

InSouth Asia, the death of Mughal emperorAurangzeb was followed by the expansion of theMaratha Confederacy and an increasing level of European influence and control in the region. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of theMughal Empire. Later, his generalAhmad Shah Durrani scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in theThird Battle of Panipat in 1761.[8] By the middle of the century, theBritish East India Company began to conquer eastern India,[9][8] and by the end of the century, theAnglo-Mysore Wars againstTipu Sultan and his fatherHyder Ali, led toCompany rule over the south.[10][11]

InEast Asia, the century was marked by theHigh Qing era, a period characterized by significant cultural and territorial expansion. This period also experienced relative peace and prosperity, allowing for societal growth, increasing literacy rates, flourishing trade, and consolidating imperial power across the vast Qing dynasty's territories. Conversely, the continualseclusion policy of theTokugawa shogunate also brought a peaceful era calledPax Tokugawa and experienced a flourishment of thearts as well asscientific knowledge and advancements, which were introduced to Japan through the Dutch port of Nagasaki. InSoutheast Asia, theKonbaung–Ayutthaya Wars and theTây Sơn Wars broke out while theDutch East India Company establishedincreasing levels of control over theMataram Sultanate.

InAfrica, theEthiopian Empire underwent theZemene Mesafint, a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. TheAtlantic slave trade also saw the continued involvement of states such as theOyo Empire. InOceania, the European colonization ofAustralia andNew Zealand began during the late half of the century. In theAmericas, theUnited States declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776,Thomas Jefferson wrote theDeclaration of Independence. In 1789,George Washington was inaugurated as the first president.Benjamin Franklin traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include thelightning rod andbifocal glasses.Túpac Amaru II led anuprising that sought to endSpanish colonial rule in Peru.

Events

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For a chronological guide, seeTimeline of the 18th century.
See also:Georgian era

1701–1750

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Main articles:1700s,1710s,1720s,1730s, and1740s
Europe at the beginning of theWar of the Spanish Succession, 1700
TheBattle of Poltava in 1709 turned theRussian Empire into a European power.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
Mughal emperorMuhammad Shah with the Persian invaderNader Shah.
Qianlong Emperor
The extinction of theScottish clan system came with the defeat of the clansmen at theBattle of Culloden in 1746.

1751–1800

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Main articles:1750s,1760s,1770s,1780s,1790s, and1800s
Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia.
Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Inventions, discoveries, and introductions

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Main articles:Timeline of historic inventions § 18th century, andTimeline of scientific discoveries § 18th century
Thespinning jenny
The ChinesePutuo Zongcheng Temple ofChengde, completed in 1771, during the reign of theQianlong Emperor.

Literary and philosophical achievements

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Main articles:18th century in literature and18th century in philosophy

Musical works

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References

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  1. ^Volkov, Sergey.Concise History of Imperial Russia.
  2. ^Rowe, William T.China's Last Empire.
  3. ^Anderson, M. S. (1979).Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-822548-5.OCLC 185538307.
  4. ^Ribeiro, Aileen (2002).Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 (revised ed.). Yale University Press.ISBN 978-0-300-09151-9.OCLC 186413657.
  5. ^Baines, Paul (2004).The Long 18th Century. London: Arnold.ISBN 978-0-340-81372-0.
  6. ^Marshall, P. J., ed. (2001).The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire). Oxford University Press, USA.ISBN 978-0-19-924677-9.OCLC 174866045., "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1
  7. ^O'Gorman, Frank (1997).The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series). A Hodder Arnold Publication.ISBN 978-0-340-56751-7.OCLC 243883533.
  8. ^abChandra, Bipin.Modern India. India.
  9. ^Campbell, John; Watts, William (1760).Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757. A. Millar, London.
  10. ^Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011),Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850,Cambridge University Press, p. 207,ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0
  11. ^Allana, Gulam (1988).Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 (2 ed.). Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania: Royal Book Company. p. 78.ISBN 9789694070919. Retrieved18 January 2013.
  12. ^"War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714". Historyofwar.org. Retrieved25 April 2009.
  13. ^Ricklefs (1991), page 82
  14. ^Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide (3 May 2007)."The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707". Historic-uk.com.Archived from the original on 8 April 2009. Retrieved25 April 2009.
  15. ^Ricklefs (1991), page 84
  16. ^"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History".Britannica.com. 31 January 1910.Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved25 April 2009.
  17. ^"List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars". Zum.de.Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved25 April 2009.
  18. ^"Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends". Ag.arizona.edu. 10 August 1997. Archived fromthe original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved25 April 2009.
  19. ^Wadsworth, Alfred P.; Mann, Julia De Lacy (1931).The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780.Manchester University Press. p. 433.OCLC 2859370.
  20. ^"Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved25 April 2009.
  21. ^"History". Columbia University.
  22. ^Ricklefs (1991), page 102
  23. ^"Sufism in the Caucasus". Islamicsupremecouncil.org. Archived fromthe original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved25 April 2009.
  24. ^"Table A – Verified Supercentenarians (Listed Chronologically By Birth Date)". Archived fromthe original on 12 July 2016. Retrieved9 November 2016.
  25. ^Photo Gallery for Supercentenarians born before 1850, as of May 17, 2019
  26. ^Balfour-Pau, Glen (20 December 2005).Bagpipes in Babylon: A Lifetime in the Arab World and Beyond. I.B.Tauris, 2006.ISBN 9781845111519.
  27. ^"The Harvey Family".Priaulx Library. 2005. Archived fromthe original on 22 October 2013.
  28. ^"Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793".EyeWitness to History.Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved22 June 2007.
  29. ^Riedel S (2005)."Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination".Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent).18 (1):21–5.doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028.PMC 1200696.PMID 16200144.
  30. ^Ricklefs (1991), page 106
  31. ^Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions,Encyclopædia BritannicaArchived August 7, 2008, at theWayback Machine
  32. ^Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5

Further reading

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  • Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds.A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History (1994) 890pp
  • Klekar, Cynthia. "Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature." Innovative Course Design Winner.American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies: Wake Forest University, 2004. <Home | American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)>. Refereed.
  • Langer, William.An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of eventsonline free
  • Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds.Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970)online
  • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds.The economic development of continental Europe: 1780–1870 (1973)online; note there are two different books with identical authors and slightly different titles. Their coverfage does not overlap.
    • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds.The development of the economies of continental Europe, 1850–1914 (1977)online
  • The Wallace Collection, London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.

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