Spain and Portugal colonized large parts ofCentral andSouth America, followed by France and England inNorthern America and theLesser Antilles. The Portuguese became the masters of trade betweenBrazil, the coasts of Africa, and their possessions in theIndies, whereas the Spanish came to dominate theGreater Antilles,Mexico,Peru, and opened trade across thePacific Ocean, linking the Americas with the Indies. English and Frenchprivateers began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era ofcolonialism establishedmercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as azero-sum game in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilistdoctrine encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled Europeanexpansion andimperialism throughout the world until the19th century or early20th century.
TheReformation in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of thepapacy and theCatholic Church. InEngland, the British-ItalianAlberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and dividedsecularism fromcanon law and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochalThirty Years' War being laid towards the end of the century.
In theMiddle East, theOttoman Empire continued to expand, with thesultan taking the title ofcaliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of theShia sect ofIslam under the rule of theSafavid dynasty of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority-SunniMuslim world.[2]
Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as theSengoku period, and emerged from it as a unified nation underToyotomi Hideyoshi. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty, which was becoming increasinglyisolationist, coming into conflict with Japan over thecontrol of Korea as well asJapanese pirates.
1505:Sultan Trenggono builds the first Muslim kingdom in Java, calledDemak, in Indonesia. Many other small kingdoms were established in other islands to fight against Portuguese. Each kingdom introduced local language as a way of communication and unity.
1509: The Portuguese king sendsDiogo Lopes de Sequeira to findMalacca, the eastern terminus of Asian trade. After initially receiving Sequeira,Sultan Mahmud Shah captures and/or kills several of his men and attempts an assault on the four Portuguese ships, which escape.[7] TheJavanese fleet is also destroyed in Malacca.
1512: The first Portuguese exploratory expedition was sent eastward from Malacca (in present-day Malaysia) to search for the 'Spice Islands' (Maluku) led byFrancisco Serrão. Serrão is shipwrecked but struggles on toHitu (northernAmbon) and wins the favour of the local rulers.[9]
1518: TheTreaty of London was a non-aggression pact between the major European nations. The signatories were Burgundy, France, England, the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, the Papal States and Spain, all of whom agreed not to attack one another and to come to the aid of any that were under attack.
1518:Leo Africanus, also known as al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Fasi, an Andalusian Berber diplomat who is best known for his bookDescrittione dell’Africa (Description of Africa), is captured by Spanish pirates; he is taken to Rome and presented toPope Leo X.
1519:Wang Yangming, the Chinese philosopher and governor ofJiangxi province, describes his intent to use the firepower of thefo-lang-ji, abreech-loading Portugueseculverin, in order to suppress the rebellion of PrinceZhu Chenhao.
1520: The first European diplomatic mission toEthiopia, sent by thePortuguese, arrives atMassawa 9 April, and reaches the imperial encampment of EmperorDawit II inShewa 9 October.
1520: SultanAli Mughayat Shah ofAceh begins an expansionist campaign capturing Daya on the westSumatran coast (in present-day Indonesia), and the pepper and gold producing lands on the east coast.
1521:Pati Unus leads the invasion ofMalacca (in present-day Malaysia) against the Portuguese occupation. Pati Unus was killed in this battle, and was succeeded by his brother, sultanTrenggana.
1527: The last ruler ofMajapahit falls from power. This state (located in present-day Indonesia) was finally extinguished at the hands of theDemak. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali; however, the power and the seat of government transferred to Demak under the leadership of Pangeran, laterSultan Fatah.
1527: June 22, The Javanese PrinceFatahillah of theCirebon Sultanate successfully defeated the Portuguese armed forces at the site of theSunda Kelapa Harbor. The city was then renamedJayakarta, meaning "a glorious victory." This eventful day came to be acknowledged as Jakarta's Founding Anniversary.
1535: The Portuguese in Ternate depose SultanTabariji (or Tabarija) and send him to Portuguese Goa where he converts to Christianity and bequeaths his Portuguese godfatherJordao de Freitas the island ofAmbon.[12]Hairun becomes the next sultan.
1548:Askia Daoud, who reigned from 1548 to 1583, establishes public libraries inTimbuktu (in present-day Mali).
1548: TheMing dynasty government ofChina issues a decree banning all foreign trade and closes down all seaports along the coast; theseHai jin laws came during theWokou wars withJapanese pirates.
1549:Arya Penangsang with the support of his teacher, Sunan Kudus, avenges the death of Raden Kikin by sending an envoy named Rangkud to kill Sunan Prawoto byKeris Kyai Satan Kober (in present-day Indonesia).
1556: Publication inVenice of Delle Navigiationi et Viaggi (terzo volume) byGiovanni Battista Ramusio, secretary of Council of Ten, with planLa Terra de Hochelaga, an illustration of theHochelaga.[13]
1559: SultanHairun of Ternate (in present-day Indonesia) protests the Portuguese'sChristianisation activities in his lands. Hostilities betweenTernate and the Portuguese.
1562: PortugueseDominican priests build a palm-trunk fortress whichJavaneseMuslims burned down the following year. The fort was rebuilt from more durable materials and the Dominicans commenced theChristianisation of the local population.[12]
1565:Miguel López de Legazpi establishes inCebu the first Spanish settlement in thePhilippines starting a period of Spanish colonization that would last over three hundred years.
1565: Spanish navigatorAndres de Urdaneta discovers the maritime route from Asia to the Americas across thePacific Ocean, also known as thetornaviaje.
1568: Hadiwijaya sent his adopted son and son in-lawSutawijaya, who would later become the first ruler of theMataram dynasty of Indonesia, to killArya Penangsang.
1570: SultanHairun of Ternate (in present-day Indonesia) is killed by the Portuguese.[12]Babullah becomes the next Sultan.
1570: 20,000 inhabitants of Nicosia in Cyprus were massacred and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Cyprus fell to theOttoman Turks the following year.
1578: The Portuguese establish a fort onTidore but the main centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku becomes Ambon.[12]
1578:Sonam Gyatso is conferred the title ofDalai Lama by Tumed Mongol ruler,Altan Khan. Recognised as the reincarnation of two previous Lamas, Sonam Gyatso becomes the third Dalai Lama in the lineage.[15]
1579: The British navigatorSir Francis Drake passes through Maluku and transit inTernate on his circumnavigation of the world. The Portuguese establish a fort onTidore but the main centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku becomes Ambon.[16]
1580:Drake's royal reception after his attacks on Spanish possessions influencesPhilip II of Spain to build up theSpanish Armada. English ships in Spanish harbours are impounded.
1582:Pope Gregory XIII issues theGregorian calendar. The last day of the Julian calendar was Thursday, 4 October 1582 and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582
1584–1585: After thesiege of Antwerp, many of its merchants flee toAmsterdam. According to Luc-Normand Tellier, "At its peak, between 1510 and 1557,Antwerp concentrated about 40% of the world trade...It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than theAmericas."[17]
1584:Ki Ageng Pemanahan died. Sultan Pajang raised Sutawijaya, son of Ki Ageng Pemanahan as the new ruler inMataram, titled "Loring Ngabehi Market" (because of his home in the north of the market).
1587: Troops that would invade PajangMataram Sultanate storm ravaged the eruption of Mount Merapi. Sutawijaya and his men survived.
1588: Mataram into the kingdom with Sutawijaya as Sultan, titled "Senapati Ingalaga Sayidin Panatagama" means the warlord and cleric Manager Religious Life.
1595: First Dutch expedition to Indonesia sets sail for the East Indies with two hundred and forty-nine men and sixty-four cannons led byCornelis de Houtman.[18]
1596: June, de Houtman's expedition reachesBanten the main pepper port of West Java where they clash with both the Portuguese and Indonesians. It then sails east along the north coast ofJava losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack atSidayu and killing a local ruler inMadura.[18]
1599: The van Neck expedition returns to Europe. The expedition makes a 400 per cent profit.[18] (to 1600)
1599: March, Leaving Europe the previous year, afleet of eight ships underJacob van Neck was the first Dutch fleet to reach the ‘Spice Islands’ of Maluku.[18]
1600: The Portuguese win a major naval battle in the bay of Ambon.[19] Later in the year, the Dutch join forces with the local Hituese in an anti-Portuguese alliance, in return for which the Dutch would have the sole right to purchase spices from Hitu.[19]
TheAge of Sail began, encompassing the period of roughly 1571–1862, when large, sail-powered woodennaval warships dominated the high seas, mounting a large variety of types and sizes ofcannon as their main armament.
^Modern reference works on the period tend to follow the introduction of the Gregorian calendar for the sake of clarity; thusNASA's lunar eclipse catalogue states "The Gregorian calendar is used for all dates from 1582 Oct 15 onwards. Before that date, the Julian calendar is used." For dates after 15 October 1582, care must be taken to avoid confusion of the two styles.
^Miller, George, ed. (1996).To The Spice Islands and Beyond: Travels in Eastern Indonesia. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. xv.ISBN967-65-3099-9.
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