For an overview of the book in all editions, seeSystema Naturae.
Title page of the 10th edition ofSystema Naturae
The10th edition ofSystema Naturae (Latin; the English title isA General System of Nature) is a book written by Swedish naturalistCarl Linnaeus and published in two volumes in 1758 and 1759, which marks the starting point ofzoological nomenclature. In it, Linnaeus introducedbinomial nomenclature foranimals, something he had already done for plants in his 1753 publication ofSpecies Plantarum.
Before 1758, most biological catalogues had used polynomial names for the taxa included, including earlier editions ofSystema Naturae. The first work to consistently apply binomial nomenclature across the animal kingdom was the 10th edition ofSystema Naturae. TheInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature therefore chose 1 January 1758 as the "starting point" for zoological nomenclature and asserted that the 10th edition ofSystema Naturae was to be treated as if published on that date.[1] Names published before that date are unavailable, even if they would otherwise satisfy the rules. The only work which takespriority over the 10th edition isCarl Alexander Clerck'sSvenska Spindlar orAranei Suecici, which was published in 1757, but is also to be treated as if published on January 1, 1758.[1]
During Linnaeus' lifetime,Systema Naturae was under continuous revision. Progress was incorporated into new and ever-expanding editions; for example, in his 1st edition (1735),whales andmanatees were originally classified as species offish (as was thought to be the case then). In the 10th edition, they were both moved into themammal class.[2]
The animal kingdom (as described by Linnaeus): "Animals enjoy sensation by means of a living organization, animated by a medullary substance; perception by nerves; and motion by the exertion of the will. They have members for the different purposes of life; organs for their different senses; and faculties (or powers) for the application of their different perceptions. They all originate from an egg. Their external and internal structure; their comparative anatomy, habits, instincts, and various relations to each other, are detailed in authors who professedly treat on their subjects."[3]
The list has been broken down into the original six classes Linnaeus described for animals;Mammalia,Aves,Amphibia,Pisces,Insecta, andVermes. These classes were ultimately created by studying the internal anatomy, as seen in his key:[3]
Heart with two auricles, two ventricles. Warm, red blood
By current standards Pisces and Vermes are informal groupings, Insecta also containedarachnids andcrustaceans, and one order of Amphibia comprisedsharks,lampreys, andsturgeons.
TheBarbary macaque was included in the 10th edition asSimia sylvanus.
Linnaeus describedmammals as: "Animals that suckle their young by means of lactiferous teats. In external and internal structure they resemble man: most of them are quadrupeds; and with man, their natural enemy, inhabit the surface of the Earth. The largest, though fewest in number, inhabit the ocean."[3]
Linnaeus divided the mammals based upon the number, situation, and structure of their teeth, into the following orders and genera:
Thesnowy owl was included in the 10th edition asStrix scandiaca.
Linnaeus describedbirds as: "A beautiful and cheerful portion of created nature consisting of animals having a body covered with feathers and down; protracted and naked jaws (the beak), two wings formed for flight, and two feet. They are areal, vocal, swift and light, and destitute of external ears, lips, teeth, scrotum, womb, bladder, epiglottis, corpus callosum and its arch, and diaphragm."[3]
Linnaeus divided the birds based upon the characters of the bill and feet, into the following 6 orders and 63 genera:
Thecommon frog was included in the 10th edition asRana temporaria.
Linnaeus described his "Amphibia" (comprisingreptiles andamphibians) as: "Animals that are distinguished by a body cold and generally naked; stern and expressive countenance; harsh voice; mostly lurid color; filthy odor; a few are furnished with a horrid poison; all have cartilaginous bones, slow circulation, exquisite sight and hearing, large pulmonary vessels, lobate liver, oblong thick stomach, and cystic, hepatic, and pancreatic ducts: they are deficient in diaphragm, do not transpire (sweat), can live a long time without food, are tenacious of life, and have the power of reproducing parts which have been destroyed or lost; some undergo a metamorphosis; some cast (shed) their skin; some appear to live promiscuously on land or in the water, and some are torpid during the winter."[3]
Linnaeus divided the amphibians based upon the limb structures and the way they breathed, into the following orders and genera:[4]
Thebutterfly blenny was included in the 10th edition asBlennius ocellatus.
Linnaeus describedfish as: "Always inhabiting the waters; are swift in their motion and voracious in their appetites. They breathe by means of gills, which are generally united by a bony arch; swim by means of radiate fins, and are mostly covered over with cartilaginous scales. Besides the parts they have in common with other animals, they are furnished with a nictitant membrane, and most of them with a swim-bladder, by the contraction or dilatation of which, they can raise or sink themselves in their element at pleasure."[3]
Linnaeus divided the fishes based upon the position of the ventral and pectoral fins, into the following orders and genera:[3]
Crustaceans such as thewater fleaMonoculus pulex (nowDaphnia pulex) were included in Linnaeus' Insecta.Linnaeus gave the nameCicada septendecim to an insect whose adult appears once in 17 years.
Linnaeus described his "Insecta" (comprising allarthropods, includinginsects,crustaceans,arachnids and others) as: "A very numerous and various class consisting of small animals, breathing through lateral spiracles, armed on all sides with a bony skin, or covered with hair; furnished with many feet, and moveable antennae (or horns), which project from the head, and are the probable instruments of sensation."[5]
Linnaeus divided the insects based upon the form of the wings, into the following orders and genera:[6]
Thecommon cuttlefish was namedSepia officinalis in the 10th edition ofSystema Naturae.
Linnaeus described his "Vermes" as: "Animals of slow motion, soft substance, able to increase their bulk and restore parts which have been destroyed, extremely tenacious of life, and the inhabitants of moist places. Many of them are without a distinct head, and most of them without feet. They are principally distinguished by their tentacles (or feelers). By the Ancients they were not improperly called imperfect animals, as being destitute of ears, nose, head, eyes and legs; and are therefore totally distinct from Insects."[7]
Linnaeus divided the "Vermes" based upon the structure of the body, into the following orders and genera:[7]
^abcdefgCarl von Linné, translated byWilliam Turton (1806).Volume 1. A general system of nature: through the three grand kingdoms of animals, vegetables, and minerals, systematically divided into their several classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties. London: Lackington, Allen, and Co.
^Carl von Linné, translated byWilliam Turton (1806).Volume 2: Insects. A general system of nature: through the three grand kingdoms of animals, vegetables, and minerals, systematically divided into their several classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties. London: Lackington, Allen, and Co.
^abvon Linné, Carl (1806).Volume 4: Worms. A general system of nature: through the three grand kingdoms of animals, vegetables, and minerals, systematically divided into their several classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties. Translated byTurton, William. London: Lackington, Allen, and Co.
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