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An idol of the 23rd tirthankaraParshvanatha at a Jain temple in Mysore, depicting Śvetāmbara iconography
TheŚvetāmbara (/ʃwɛˈtʌmbərə/; also spelledShwetambara,Shvetambara,Svetambara orSwetambara) is one of the two main branches ofJainism, the other being theDigambara.Śvetāmbara inSanskrit means "white-clad", and refers to itsascetics' practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart from theDigambara or "sky-clad" Jains whose ascetic practitioners go nude. Śvetāmbaras do not believe that ascetics must practice nudity.[1]
The Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards Jain nuns, their legends and the texts they consider as important.[2][3][4] Śvetāmbara Jain communities are currently found mainly inGujarat,Rajasthan and coastal regions ofMaharashtra.[5][4] According toJeffery D. Long, a scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, about four-fifths of all Jains in India are Śvetāmbaras.[6]
Śvetāmbaras consider themselves to be the original followers ofMahavira and that theDigambara sect emerged in 82 AD as a result of a rebellion by a monk namedSivabhuti, who was the disciple of Arya Krishnasuri. This account is found in 5th century Śvetāmbara textViśeśāvaśyaka Bhaśya[7] written byJinabhadra. This is also the earliest formal recognition of the schism between the two sects.[8][9][10]
Śvetāmbaras have severalpattavalis that mention the historical lineage of their chief monks (acharya) beginning with the 24thTirthankaraMahavira. The most popular of thepattavalis is the one mentioned in theKalpa Sūtra, a canonical scripture of the Śvetāmbaras. According to the lineage mentioned in theKalpa Sūtra,Sthulabhadra was, unequivocally, the successor ofBhadrabāhu. Śvetāmbaras also believe that both of them were white-clad monks. These beliefs are completely rejected by the Digambara sect.[11]
14th century Ārya Sthūlabhadra idol at the Khaḍākhoṭadī no Pāḍo Jaina Temple atPatan
To manage the large following of themurtipujaka sect,Gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. Eachgaccha has its ownpattavali. One of the 84gacchas was theUpkeśa Gaccha. While all otherpattavalis (including the one mentioned in theKalpa Sūtra) trace their lineage to the 24thTirthankaraMahavira,Upkesa Gaccha'spattavali traces its lineage to the 23rdTirthankaraParshvanatha.Kesiswami, one ofParshvanatha's chief disciples,Acharya Ratnaprabhasuri, the founder of theOswal community as well asAcharya Swayamprabhasuri, the founder of thePorwal community belonged to thisgaccha. It was in existence until 1930s when it went extinct.[12][13]
A majority of the Śvetāmbaras aremurtipujakas, that is they actively offer devotionalpuja in temples, worship before the images or idols ofTirthankaras and important Jain demi-gods and demi-goddesses.[14] Historically, this is the oldest sub-tradition of the Śvetāmbaras and all other aniconic sects have emerged in and after the 14th century.[14]
The Śvetāmbaramurtipujaka (idol-worshipping) sect is the largest of all sects and sub-sects ofJainism and has the most number of followers as well as monks. To manage the large following,gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. 84gacchas have come into existence till date and most of them are extinct now. Only 4 survive today -Tapa Gaccha,Kharatara Gaccha,Parshvachandra Gaccha, andAchal Gaccha. Of these,Tapa Gaccha is the largest, with the most monks and followers.[12][15]
Śvetāmbara literature can be classified into two major categories — canonical and non-canonical. Canonical scriptures state theJain cosmology and theJain philosophy as well as the foundational aspects of understandingJainism. They also govern the conduct of monks, nuns, as well as the laity.[16] Non-canonical scriptures include, but are not limited to commentaries on canonical scriptures, biographies of theŚalākāpuruṣas (as inHemachandra'sTrisasti-shalakapurusa-caritra),[17]Jain mythology, treatise and extensions of the canonical scriptures, lists of rare and uncommon words and knowledge base and dictionaries forArdhamagadhi Prakrit,Maharashtri Prakrit, andSanskrit, devotional hymns (stavan, stuti, sajjhay, ormantra), and miscellaneous scriptures.[18]
The Śvetāmbara canon consists of 45 scriptures, mostly written inArdhamagadhi Prakrit. They are considered to be what is left ofMahavira's teachings. Historically, the knowledge of these scriptures was passed down orally in a preceptor-disciple system (guru-shishya parampara). However, the memory of the monks weakened in the 12-year long famine as described in theKalpa Sūtra. As a result, most of the knowledge of the canonical scriptures was lost. The remaining canon was codified at theGreat Council of Vallabhi under leadership ofDevardhigani Kshamashramana, which was held atVallabhi in 454 CE resulting in the 45 scriptures that govern the Śvetāmbara sect's religious practices till date.[19][20]
From a linguistic point of view, Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures are the oldest of allJain literature. TheĀcārāṅga Sūtra,Uttaradhyayana Sutra, and theSthananga Sutra of the Śvetāmbara canon are considered to have been created in 5th-4th century BC.[21] Following is a list of the 45 canonical scriptures followed by the Śvetāmbaras: -
The above list makes it 46, but the last angā Driśtivāda is considered to be lost by both the sects. It was this scripture that contained the 14purvas (14 scriptures containing extensive knowledge) ofJainism.
All texts or pieces of literature written by Śvetāmbara monks, except the ones stated above are considered to be non-canonical in nature. Following are some popular examples. However, the complete list is inexhaustive as the Śvetāmbara sect has always had more monks than the Digambara sect: -
There are vast differences between the practices of the Śvetāmbaras and the Digambaras with some fundamental overlaps. Śvetāmbara scriptures divide theJain Sangha into four parts and the congregation is popularly known as thechaturvidha sangha (asangha comprising four parts). The four parts are — monks, nuns, male lay followers (also known asśrāvakas), and female lay followers (also known asśrāvikās). Religious practices of the Śvetāmbara sect differ for each section (monastics and laity) of thesangha.[30]
Right before initiation, an ascetic-to-be performs his/her finalpuja of theTirthankara idols. Monks and nuns are not permitted to performpuja of the idols because they are not permitted to bathe all their life and Śvetāmbara scriptures only permit a person with clean body and after bathing may performpuja of the idols. Ceremonious donation of all world possessions is performed before initiation.[31]
Upon initiation, a monk or a nun renounces all worldly possessions and relations, takes theFive Vows and tears his/her hair out. A newly-initiated monk/nun is ceremoniously given therajoharan by their preceptor (who is always only anacharya). Unlike as in the Digambara sect where monks and nuns are not forbidden from touching each other and lay-followers of the opposite gender, monks and nuns of the Śvetāmbara sect do not touch persons of the opposite gender (neither mendicants nor lay-followers of the opposite gender) and observe extremecelibacy all their life.[31]
Monks and nuns of the Śvetāmbara sect wear white seamless clothing and carry arajoharan (woolen broom to clear their path of insects and small creatures), an alms bowl, a long stick, and scriptures. All monks and nuns possess only these objects. Additionally, they may only take what is given to them and what comes under permitted possessions (the objects listed earlier). They are not permitted to take anything that is not given to them by the owner of the said object.[32]
A 1st- to 2nd–century CE water tank relief panel showing twoardhaphalaka Jain monks carryingcolapatta cloth on their left hand found in the ruins of Mathura (Brooklyn Museum 87.188.5).[33] This cloth carrying tradition to cover genitalia by ancient Jain monks in principle resembles the beliefs of the Śvetāmbara and now extinct Yapaniya subtradition.[34]
Unlike ascetics of the Digambara sect, ascetics of the Śvetāmbara sect beg for alms from multiple households as theĀcārāṅga Sūtra describes how begging for alms for an entire meal from a single household does not fall under fault-free food that Jain monks must consume as it might aggrieve the householder they accept food from. Becoming the medium for a householder's grievance is unacceptable as per a mendicant's conduct. 42 faults of food are described which a monk or a nun must assess before accepting it as alms. They may only consume food free from the 42 faults (as described in theĀcārāṅga Sūtra) and boiled water between the period from 48 minutes after sunrise and until 48 minutes before sunset. However, monks and nuns of the Śvetāmbara sect actively perform and promote and inspire the laity to performfasting to obtain control over the senses.[35][36][37]
Mendicants constantly wander for 8 months of a year (except the 4 months of thechaturmasya) on foot. The reason mendicants must wander is to regulate their senses of possession and to spread the word ofJainism. TheĀcārāṅga Sūtra describes that for a mendicant, staying at one place for a period extending more than 1 month is not permitted. The reason for that is to regulate possession. A mendicant staying at one place for longer periods of time might begin getting attached to the place and such attachments must be avoided and if developed, given up. However, during the 4 months of thechaturmasya, rains are expected and there is an increase in the number of insects on ground. Mendicants must not step on insects to practiceahimsa and therefore, they are required to stay at one place for those 4 months. Stepping on grass and on water or wet ground is not permitted due to their tendency to have life. Most mendicants give religious sermons and spread the word ofJainism wherever they wander. Usually, nowadays, several Jain temples have spaces that are used for general purposes that mendicants may use after obtaining permission from the temple management. This is particularly important as if the space was constructed for the purpose of housing mendicants, even temporarily, it becomes unfit for use by mendicants. That is because it no longer remains 'free of faults' since mendicants become a medium of violence as well as possession here. This is discussed in theĀcārāṅga Sūtra at length.[38]
Monks of the Śvetāmbara sect are categorized among the classes as described in theNamokar Mantra. Each newly initiated monk is asadhu (the fifth class as described in the fifth line of theNamokar Mantra). After attaining sufficient spiritual and scriptural knowledge along with experience of the monastic life, asadhu may be promoted to the status of anupadhyaya (the fourth class as described in the fourth line of theNamokar Mantra). Finally, after sufficient spiritual education, a monk is promoted to the status of anacharya.
Acharyas are spiritual heads of the said monastic order. Usually each of the 4gacchas has a spiritual preceptor of the highest order and who is referred to as thegacchadhipati of the saidgaccha. Agacchadhipati is anacharya. Each ofKharata Gaccha,Achal Gaccha, andParshvachandra Gaccha have onegacchadhipati each. However,Tapa Gaccha has 21gacchadhipatis as it is further sub-divided into varioussamudaays (smaller sections of agaccha). Some of the majorsamudaays of theTapa Gaccha are -Buddhisagarsuri Samudaay,Sagaranand (or Anandsagar) Samudaay,Kalapurnasuri Samudaay,Bhuvanbhanusuri Samudaay etc. Another class of monks isganivarya who are spiritual heads of a small sub-section of monks in asamudaay. Other classes of monks such aspanyaas andupapanyaas also exist.
The Śvetāmbara canon defines some guidelines and duties for lay followers (śrāvakas andśrāvikās) ofJainism to fulfill. Some of them are summarized as follows: -
Scriptures describe 12 vows that a householder must take in order to bind minimumkarma. These 12 vows are also taken by lay followers of the Digambara sect as well as the aniconic offshoots of the Śvetāmbara sect. They are one of the very few points that both the sects agree upon. They summarize almost all duties a householder must perform as part of theJainsangha. They are classified into 3 categories. Following is a list of the 12 vows of a householder: -
Sthūla Prāṇātipāta Viramaṇ Vrat: A toned-down version of theAhimsa Mahāvrat followed by the mendicants. Minimal and unavoidable violence is acceptable on householders' part and they are not required to followahimsa (non-violence) as mendicants follow.
Sthūla Mṛṣāvāda Viramaṇ Vrat: This is a toned-down version of theSatya Mahāvrat followed by the mendicants. Householders are directed to avoid speaking lies.
Sthūla Adattādāna Viramaṇ Vrat: This is a milder form of theAchaurya Mahāvrat followed by monks and nuns. Householders are discouraged from stealing anything that is not theirs or is not given to them.
Sthūla Maithuna Viramaṇ Vrat: This is a toned-down form of theBrahmacharya Mahāvrat taken by the mendicants. Householders are discouraged from engaging in adultery with anyone other than their partner for any purpose.
Sthūla Parigrah Viramaṇ Vrat: This is a milder form of the mendicants'Aparigrah Mahāvrat. Householders are discouraged from holding assets more than their requirement and needs. Being too deeply involved in worldly and materialistic pleasures is a hindrance to the attainment ofmoksha.
Sthūla Dik Parimāṇa Vrat: This vow is taken to reduce the movement in each direction by setting a specific limit. This is done to ensure minimum traveling is performed, leading to lesserkarma being bound to the soul.
Sthūla Bhogopabhoga Viramaṇ Vrat: This vow is taken to reduce the usage of materialistic objects to a set limit. By taking this vow, a lay follower can reduce their attachment to materialistic objects.
Sthūla Anarthadaṇḍa Viramaṇ Vrat: This vow is taken to completely give up useless and fruitless activities. Any action which is performed without a reason constitutes to a sin. Therefore, this vow directs a lay-follower to reduce/stop performing useless actions and activities.
Sāmāyika Vrat: This vow can either be given by a mendicant, or a lay-person who has already taken the vow or, can be self-taken. It lasts 48 minutes and lay followers are encouraged to study scriptures and improve their knowledge of the religion in this time. For these 48 minutes, a lay follower becomes just like a mendicant and must follow theFive Vows just like they do. One who takes this vow detaches themself from the worldly activities and embraces equanimity for 48 minutes at once. In loose terms, equanimity (indifference to the positives and negatives around one) is the ultimate goal of Jainism as it leads to nokarma being bound to the soul.[45]
Pauṣadha Vrat: This vow is taken for a specific period of time and is given by a mendicant only. During this time, the lay follower becomes equivalent to a mendicant and must practice theFive Vows just like they do. The follower must also beg for alms and follow all rule, rites, and rituals a mendicant follows.
Atithi Saṃvibhāga Vrat: This vow promotes charity among the lay followers in that they are encouraged to donate their belongings to monks, nuns, and other needy people. It is believed that this vow, if taken and followed seriously, leads to a reduction in attachment to the worldly and materialistic pleasures.
6Āvaśyakas (Essential Observances) of Householders
6 essential observances have been considered necessary for a lay follower to practice regularly in both the sects.[46] However, the observances are different in each sect. Mendicants also observe these regularly and it is believed that these essential observances help one maintain discipline as well as bind least and shed mostkarma.[47] Following are the 6 essential observances ofśrāvakas andśrāvikās of the Śvetāmbara sect: -[48]
Sāmāyika: This concept is considered to be so important that it occurs in the 12 vows as well as 6 essential observances. It has also been a subject of great discussion in the canonical scriptureUttaradhyayana Sutra. A lay follower embraces equanimity for 48 minutes and that is how purification of soul happens.[45]
Chaturvimsati-stava: This refers to extolling and appreciating the qualities of and praying totirthankaras as supreme beings for purification of soul. Through this, a lay follower attains theratnatraya and eventualsamyaktva (true and right knowledge, belief, and conduct). Śvetāmbara canon defines theLogassa Sutra andNamutthunam Sutra to extol the qualities of the 24tirthankaras. It is written inArdhamagadhi Prakrit.[47]
Vandanā: This refers to the practice of showing obeisance towards one's preceptor mendicant (monk/nun). It also means one should surrender themself to their guru and accept their word as it is. Performing service of one's preceptor and respecting them is one of the prime duties of householders.[45][46]
Pratikramana: Shedding of negativekarma is the prime goal of Jainism and this practice directly lets one perform that. It entails performing penance and mindfully regretting and seeking forgiveness for one's wrong deeds. It consists of a long sequence of hymns, prayers, and rituals. The main goal is to seek forgiveness for one's negative actions. It includes the first, second, and the fifthĀvaśyakas as part of rituals within it.[45][47]
Kāyotsarga: This practice is concerned with concentration on non-attachment. This may be performed in a standing or a sitting posture and during this time, the lay follower must not think of any attachments, including the body. As per the canonical scriptureSthananga Sutra, a lay follower goes intoshukladhyan (pure meditation) duringkayotsarga. UsuallyChaturvimsati-stava Āvaśyaka throughLogassa Sutra is performed duringkayotsarga.[45][47]
Pratyākhyāna: Last of allĀvaśyakas, it includes taking vows for and limiting all actions so as to perform minimalkarma. A lay follower takespratyākhyāna (vow) before commencingfasts. Similarly, a lay follower takespratyākhyāna to limit intake of food and ay other materialistic things to have a better self-control. According to the 24thtirthankaraMahavira in theUttaradhyayana Sutra, a follower's soul is purified by takingpratyākhyāna and renouncing certain actions and objects for a set period of time.[45][47]
The Śvetāmbara canon unequivocally endorses the worshipping of idols oftirthankaras by all sections of theChaturvidha Sangha. The main motive behind such worshipping is not a worldly affair, but worshipping their qualities.[49] Most Śvetāmbara lay-followers perform worshipping of idols in three main formats: -
Aṅga Pūjā (Worshipping by anointing various parts of the idol): Such worshipping is performed by anointing various parts of the idol using several objects of worship, including water, saffron mixed with sandalwood paste,[50]Vāsakṣepa (sandalwood powder),Yakṣakardama (a fragrant ointment) etc. According to scriptures, such worshipping is performed only using 'uttam dravya' (excellent and possibly expensive objects of worship).A Śvetāmbara lay follower performing 'Anga Puja' of the idol ofKesariyaji by anointing the idol with saffron and sandalwood mixture as per ancient rituals of Kesariyaji temple and of the Śvetāmbara sectMendicants are not allowed to perform worshipping using such objects as they do not own materialistic objects and have already renounced them. Also the violence that can be caused towards small creatures and beings during such worshipping is unacceptable according to a mendicant's conduct as described in the scriptures. Householders are not supposed to follow such micro levels of non-violence and must perform idol worship as it has more merits (extolling qualities oftirthankaras and eventually attaining such a state) than demerits as described in the canon. Another form of such worship isAṅga Rachanā orĀṅgī, which refers to the devotional worshipping of the idol by decorating it with a devotedly designed armor of vibrant objects such as stones, clothes, and other colorful objects that are obtained by pure methods and sources.[51]Anga Rachana of an idol of Mahavira Swami, the 24th Tirthankara, using pure and non-violently prepared silver and gold foil. at Shri Mahavira Swami Jinalaya at Risala Bazar, DeesaAnga Rachana (decoration of Tirthankara idols with pure materials) using only pure flowers at Vasupujya Swami Derasar, Goregaon, Mumbai
Agra Pūjā (Worshipping of the idol without touching it): Such worshipping is performed by placing objects of worship in front of the idol and recitingPrakrit orSanskrit prayers, or singing devotional hymns. Objects of worship include,Dhūp (incense),Dīpa (lamp),Akṣata (raw rice grains),Fal (fruits), andNaivedya (sweets). Each object of worshipping has its own significance and reason. These 5, in combination withJal Pūjā (bathing the idol with water),Kesar Pūjā (worshipping with idol by anointing it with a mixture of sandalwood paste and saffron), andKusum Pūjā (worshipping the idol by placing flower on its parts) are collectively known asAṣṭaprakāri Pūjā. Mendicants cannot perform this form of worshipping as well as the material used for such worshipping can cause violence against small creatures and a mendicant must strictly follow theFive Vows of which non-violence is the first. However, householders may perform such worshipping as the vows they follow do not entail practicing such micro-level of non-violence.[52][53]Agra puja using rice, sweet, and fruit in front of an idol of Mahavira Swami, the 24th Tirthankara at Jain Center of Southern California, Buena Park, California
Bhāva Pūjā (worshipping of the idol through emotions without using objects of worship): This form of worshipping includes singingstavans andstutis (devotional hymns) extolling the life and qualities of atirthankara. A sequence of severalPrakrit and someSanskrit prayers extolling atirthankara in particular seating positions is known asCaityavandan.[54]Caityavandan is usually performed in two postures —Yogamudrā andMuktāśuktimudrā. It also includes 2kayotsargas and at least 3 hymns and a recitation of major Jain hymns and prayers includingNamokar Mantra,Uvasaggaharam Stotra, andLogassa Sutra. It is considered to be a standard form ofBhāva Pūjā amongst the Śvetāmbara laity. Digambaras strictly do not have such form of worshipping of their idols.Bhāva Pūjā does not include the use of any materialistic objects of worship and therefore, can be performed by the mendicants. In fact, devotional hymns are usually authored by the Śvetāmbara mendicants which is why the Śvetāmbara sect has huge and rich literature on devotional worship of thetirthankaras.[53]
Several other forms of worshipping of the idols exist. One of the most popular ones isSnātra Pūjā which is a lengthy ritual that includes mimicking of atirthankara's ritualistic bathing atMount Meru by the demi-godIndra.[55][56] Other popular ritualistic bathing isŚakrastava Abhiṣeka which is performed parallel to the recitation of the hymn of the same name authored byAcharya Siddhasenadiwakarsuri.[57][26] Usually, regular purification of temples and icons is performed and the ritual for which include18 Abhiṣeka which is a ritualistic bathing of the idols with 18 excellent objects of high fragrance and devotional value.[58]
Vyākhyāna andGuruvandan (Interaction with Mendicants)
TheChaturvidha Sangha has 4 pillars andśrāvakas andśrāvikās (lay followers) derive their knowledge of the religion and its practices from the other two pillars - mendicants (monks and nuns).Vyākhyāna refers to the religious sermons that the mendicants give. It is a result of these sermons that Jainism is propagated to the lay followers. Since reading scriptures without the preceptor's permission is considered to be a grave sin, lay followers (householders) derive all their knowledge of the religion and scriptures as well as their duties and responsibilities from the mendicants' vyākhyānas. As such, even though attendingvyākhyānas is not an essential part as per scriptures, lay followers are always encouraged to attend them regularly to learn principles of Jainism.[59] A formal procedure of greeting the preceptor by reciting 2 ancientPrakrit prayers -Icchakāra Sutra andAbbhuthio Sutra and 4Khamāsamaṉas in a particular sequence is known asGuruvandan. The practice ofGuruvandan is only performed by householders of the Śvetāmbara sect.
There are some festivals which are exclusively celebrated by the Śvetāmbara sect and are neither recognized nor celebrated by the Digambara sect. Following is a list of some of those festivals: -
It is one of the most popular of the Jain festivals. It falls during the bright fortnight of theBhadrapada month of thelunar calendar. During this 8-day long festival, lay followers intensify their spirituality and undertake rigorousfasting. Some of them also fast for all 8 days by consuming either only boiled water or nothing at all (this fast is known asatthai). It is during these 8 days that monks and nuns read the holy canonical scripture -Kalpa Sūtra. Most of the reading is done in private, except the chapter that describes the birth ofMahavira, which is traditionally read and celebrated publicly on the 5th of the 8 days. The 8th day is known assamvatsari and is considered to be one of the holiest days by Śvetāmbara lay followers, who performpratikramana and seek forgiveness for the sins they committed in the past year by saying "Michchhāmi Dukkaḍaṃ" to the people they know. Digambaras, alternatively, celebrate theDas Lakshana, which is a 10-day long festival and has a different purpose thanParyuṣaṇa.[60]
This is a 9-day long festival that occurs twice a year, once in theChaitra month and once in theAshvin month of thelunar calendar. This is one of the two major celebrations as per Śvetāmbara scriptures, the other beingParyuṣaṇa. During this festival, Śvetāmbaras worship the 9 supreme entities, namelyArihant,Siddhā,Ācārya,Upādhyāya,Sādhu,Samyak Darśana,Samyak Jñāna,Samyak Cāritra, andSamyak Tap, one day for each of these entities.[61]Jainism believes that these 9 entities were neither created nor can they be destroyed. It believes in the eternal existence of these 'categories' orpadas that propagatedharma. Śvetāmbaras, therefore, consider this festival to beśāśvata (which means that it has existed since eternity and will continue to exist forever).
Throughout these 9 days, Śvetāmbara lay followers performAyambil, a form of fasting in which no oil, dairy products, and spices are consumed. This form of fasting is believed to improve control over the sense of taste.[62] They also worship theSiddhachakra during these 9 days. Spiritual practices are intensified during these days just as during theParyuṣaṇa. One of the most popular legends associated with this festival is ofŚrīpāla andMayaṇasundarī.[63]Mahavir Janma Kalyanak falls on the 7th day of theNavpad Oli that occurs during theChaitra month. Although Digambaras believe in the legend ofŚrīpāla andMayaṇasundarī, they do not performAyambil and their practices are vastly different from the Śvetāmbaras.[64][65]
It is celebrated on the 5th day of the bright fortnight of theKārtika month of thelunar calendar. This festival is celebrated to worshipSamyakJñāna (right knowledge). Rituals include visiting a Jain temple, placing objects of knowledge (such as pen, pencil, paper, books etc.) on a platform and venerating the object withVāsakṣepa (sandalwood powder) and reciting hymns venerating thedemi-goddess Saraswati. InJainism, the eternal knowledge of the road tomoksha is recorded in the word of thetirthankaras and that is known asjinvāṇī. This is whatSaraswati represents. Therefore, inJainism, she is not worshipped as she is inHinduism, but as the word of thetirthankaras.Jainism endorses the existence of 5 types of knowledge —Mati Jñāna,Śrut Jñāna,Avadhi Jñāna,Manaḥparyaya Jñāna,Kevala Jñāna. All these forms of knowledge are highly venerated and worshipped in the Śvetāmbara sect. Lay followers of the Śvetāmbara sect also perform penance andfast to celebrate the day. Most followers, if they do not perform fasts, refrain from consuming food after sunset.[66]
This festival is celebrated on the 11th day of the bright fortnight of theMaargashirsha month of thelunar calendar. Śvetāmbara legends say that if a devotee performs penance staying mum on this day every year for a period of 11 years and 11 months achievesmoksha. The word 'maun' means silence. The most prominent of the penances on this day is to not speak and communicate for the entire day, until the next morning. This form of penance is believed to improve control over the mind and the tongue. According to Śvetāmbara legends, a total of 150kalyāṇakas of thepanch kalyanakas oftirthankaras of the past, present, and futurehalf cycles of time occur on this single day. Therefore, it holds high importance and auspiciousness in the Śvetāmbara sect. Most lay followers begin new ventures and worshiptirthankara idols especially apart from performing the penance of staying silent on this day. Several legends including that ofNeminatha andKrishna and ofSuvrat Shetha are associated with this day.[67][68]
This festival is observed on the 13th day of the bright fortnight of thePhalguna month as per thelunar calendar and is directly associated withPalitana, one of the most important pilgrimage sites for the Śvetāmbaras. Śvetāmbara legends state thatKrishna's sonsPradyumna and Shyaambh, along with 8.5 crore (85 million) mendicants attainedliberation fromBhadva's Dungar atPalitana hills on this day. Śvetāmbara lay followers visitPalitana temples in huge numbers on this day, every year and circumambulate the entire region ofPalitana hills in a single day. The walk is 15–18 km long along a hilly terrain. This walk is also known as the6-Gau Yaatra (walk of visiting 6 villages).[69]
Devotees first ascend the hill until they reach theRam Pol gate, and then take a different route from the usual route, which is opened only on this day every year for devotees to circumambulate around the hill. This route takes devotees through various 'hidden' regions of thePalitana temples, which are otherwise inaccessible on other days. The shrines that this walk takes a devotee through can be summarized as follows: -
The shrine ofDevaki's 6 sons — According to the Jain version ofMahabharata,Devaki gave birth to 6 other sons before giving birth toKrishna. These 6 sons were initiated into theJain sangha byNeminatha. Legend says that all 6 of them attainedliberation at the spot where this shrine stands today.[70]
Ulkā Jal Deri — It is believed to be the site where the water which is used in ritualistic bathing of the idol ofRishabhanatha gets collected.[71]
Chandan Talavdi — Legend says this lake was established byChillan Muni, a disciple ofGanadhar Pundarik Swami, who was himself one of the prime disciples ofRishabhanatha. It is said that he used his magical powers and established the lake for devotees to quench their thirst while ascending the hill. The lake's banks are of importance as Śvetāmbaras believe several mendicants performed penance in thekayotsarga posture at this point and eventually attained liberation. Several devotees performkayotsarga here and recite theLogassa hymn.[70][71]
Ajitnath - Shantinath Deri — These are two shrines devoted to the 2ndTirthankaraAjitanatha and 16thTirthankaraShantinatha each. Shrines dedicated to these twotirthankaras were constructed because it is believed that these two gave religious sermons in the said area. Legend says that during the 22ndtirthankaraNeminatha's period, these two shrines stood opposite to each other and when a devotee would pray at one of these, their back would face the other. However, facing one's back towardstirthankara idols is considered to be a sin. Nandisena, a mendicant at that time, sat in the middle of both these shrines and composed theAjit-Śānti Stava, a hymn in which alternate verse extolAjitanatha andShantinatha.[72] The legend says that by the end of his recitation of the composition, the two shrines came side by side to each other. Today, both shrines stand next to each other.[73][71]
Siddhshila — According to legends, this spot has witnessed most number of souls attainingmoksha than any other spot onPalitana hills.[69][71]
Bhadva's Dungar — This is believed to be the spot whereKrishna's sonsPradyumna and Shyaambh attainedmoksha along with 8.5 crore (85 million) other mendicants. This place is believed to be the inspiration behind the whole walk of around 15–18 km (12 miles).[69][71]
Siddha Vad — This is an oldBanyan tree. It is believed that several soul attainedmoksha while performing penance under this tree.[69][71]
Juni Taleti — This shrine is the old starting point of the ascent of the main hill. This is the point where thePhālguṇa Pherī comes to an end.[69][71]
It is a generic name given to various observances and celebrations at different Jain temples. It refers to the changing of the flag that is hoisted at the top of a Jain temple'sśikhara (topmost part of the structure) and is celebrated annually at every Jain temple. A common ritual is followed wherein the devotees bid to get a chance of changing the flag. The highest bidder performs devotionalpuja according to a ritual described in the scriptures and changes thedhvaj (flag) hoisted on theśikhara every year throughout lifetime passed on generation after generation. Every Jain temple has a different day for the ceremony and it is celebrated on the said temple's anniversary. Asvāmi-vātsalya (community lunch) is organized as part of the ceremony.[74][75]
InJainism,Akshaya Tritiya is an important festival as it commemorates the firstTirthankara,Rishabhanatha, ending his 400-day-long fast by consuming sugarcane juice poured into his cupped hands. Śvetāmbara Jains perform a similar fast (but consume food on alternate days) that lasts 400 days. This practice is popularly known asVarshitapa.[76]Rishabhanatha renounced worldly pleasures and turned into a monk. Thereafter, he fasted for 400 days. He did not accept food from lay followers as every time he was given food, it was not 'free of faults' as it should be for a Jain monk to accept. The 42 faults that food given to a Jain monk may have are discussed at length in the ancient Śvetāmbara textĀcārāṅga Sūtra.[77]
A minority of the Śvetāmbaras are split into other traditions where either Jain temples and halls are built butpuja is a minor practice, or where all construction and use of temples, images and idols is actively discouraged and avoided. These sub-traditions began around 14th-century through 18th-century and are not considered authentic by any of the major Śvetāmbara monks and scriptures.[14]
A layman who opposed devotional temples, images and idols was Lonka Shah (c. 1476 CE) who is responsible for starting theSthānakavāsī sub-tradition.Bhikshu was initiated as aSthānakavāsī monk, but he believed that their teachings were inappropriate. As a result, he started theTerapanth sub-tradition after criticizing theSthanakvasi sub-tradition's beliefs.[78][79] Early colonial era observers and some early 20th-century Jain writers such as Malvaniya hypothesized that this movement against idol worship may be the impact of Islam on Jainism, but later scholarship states that the sub-traditions arose from an internal dispute and debate on the principleAhimsa (non-violence).[14][80] The newer sub-traditions only accept 32 of the 45 scriptures of the original Śvetāmbara canon. In the 32 they have accepted, several parts have been modified and major sections of their canon is different from the original canon as followed by the oldest sect of themurtipujakas.[79]
These sub-traditions are not recognized by the original Śvetāmbara sect of the idol-worshippers (murtipujakas), who consider that they were created as a result of a grave misinterpretation of canonical scriptures.[81] Themurtipujaka Śvetāmbaras do not allow laypersons to read scriptures as a misinterpretation of the canon is considered to be a grave sin. The later sub-traditions have made their canon openly accessible. Both the newer sub-traditions have various sub-traditions within them that do not agree on several aspects of the canon due to an open access to their canon and eventual misinterpretation.[82]
Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as:
Śvetāmbaras believe that Parshvanatha, the 23rdtirthankara, taught only Four restraints (a claim, scholars say is confirmed by the ancient Buddhist texts that discuss Jain monastic life). Mahāvīra taught Five vows.[83][84][85] The Digambara sect disagrees with the Śvetāmbara interpretations,[86] and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings.[84] However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught byMahavira. The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believeParshvanatha taught one vow less (the Four vows exceptBrahmacharya) thanMahavira. However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in theĀcārāṅga Sūtra.[87]
Digambaras believe that both Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra remained unmarried, whereas Śvetāmbara believe the 23rd and 24th tirthankar did indeed marry. According to the Śvetāmbara version, Parshvanāth married Prabhavati,[88] and Mahāvīraswāmi married Yashoda who bore him a daughter named Priyadarshana.[89][90] The two sects also differ on the origin ofTrishala, Mahāvīra's mother,[89] as well as the details of Tirthankara's biographies such as how many auspicious dreams their mothers had when they were in the wombs.Digambaras believe it is 16 dreams while Śvetāmbaras believe it is 14.[91]
Śvetāmbaras have a more comprehensive set of scriptures as they have a canon with extensive information, supported by the non-canonical literature. Digambara literature is much lesser in volume and their scriptures are more recent than those of the Śvetāmbaras.[92]
Śvetāmbara believe that the Jain canon is still preserved, whereas Digambaras believe it was lost about 200 years after Mahāvīra's nirvana.[92] Śvetāmbaras also have a richer non-canonical literature.[93]
Digambara believe Rishabha,Vasupujya andNeminatha were the threetirthankaras who reached omniscience while in sitting posture and other tirthankaras were in standing ascetic posture. In contrast, Śvetāmbaras believe it was Rishabha, Nemi and Mahāvīra who were the three in sitting posture.[94]
According to Śvetāmbara Jain texts, sinceRishabhanatha's time, till date, its monastic community has had moresadhvis thansadhus (female than male mendicants). InTapa Gacch of the modern era, the ratio ofsadhvis tosadhus (nuns to monks) is about 3.5 to 1.[95] In contrast to Śvetāmbara, the Digambara sect monastic community has been predominantly male.[96]
In the Digambara tradition, a male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve his soul's liberation from rebirths through asceticism. Women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can they achieve spiritual liberation in the Digambara sect of Jainism.[97][98] The Śvetāmbaras strictly disagree with the Digambaras, believing that women can also achieve liberation fromsaṃsāra through ascetic practices.[98][99]
The Śvetāmbaras state the 19th TirthankaraMāllīnātha was female.[100] However, Digambara reject this, and worship Mallinatha as a male.[101]
^Stevenson, Margaret (1915).The Heart of Jainism. London: Oxford University Press. p. 13.Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved20 March 2023.
Shashi, S. S. (1996),Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Origin and development of Indus civilization, vol. 1, Anmol Publications,ISBN81-7041-859-3
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