Lying on an advantageous location at the head of a gulf running down in a deep indentation, midway along the western Anatolian coast, İzmir has been one of the principal mercantile cities of theMediterranean Sea for much of its history. Until the 1923population exchange between Greece and Turkey, İzmir had a very largeGreek population. Present-day İzmir is animportant port, and is home to multiple universities.[9] It hosts the annualİzmir International Fair.[9]
In ancient Anatolia, the name of a locality calledTi-smurna is mentioned in some of the Level II tablets from theAssyrian colony inKültepe (first half of the2nd millennium BC), with the prefixti- identifying a proper name, although it is not established with certainty that this name refers to modern-day İzmir.[10]
The region of İzmir was situated on the southern fringes of the Yortan culture in Anatolia's prehistory, knowledge of which is almost entirely drawn from its cemeteries.[12] In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, it was in the western end of the extension of the still largely obscureArzawa Kingdom, an offshoot and usually a dependency of theHittites, who themselves spread their direct rule as far as the coast during their Great Kingdom. That the realm of the13th century BC localLuwian ruler, who is depicted in theKemalpaşa Karabelrock carving at a distance of only 50 km (31 mi) from İzmir was called theKingdom of Myra may also leave grounds for association with the city's name.[13]
The latest known rendering in Greek of the city's name is theAeolic GreekΜύρραMýrrha, corresponding to the laterIonian andAtticΣμύρνα (Smýrna) orΣμύρνη (Smýrnē), both presumably descendants of aProto-Greek form*Smúrnā. Some would see in the city's name a reference to the name of anAmazon called Smyrna said to have seducedTheseus, leading him to name the city in her honor.[14] Others link the name to theMyrrha commifera shrub, a plant producing the aromatic resin calledmyrrh that is indigenous to theMiddle East and northeasternAfrica, which was the city's chief export in antiquity.[15] TheRomans took over this name asSmyrna, which is still the name used inEnglish when referring to the city in pre-Turkish times. InOttoman Turkish the town's name wasازميرIzmīr.[citation needed]
In English, the city was called Smyrna into the 20th century.Izmir (sometimesİzmir) was adopted inEnglish and most foreign languages after Turkey adopted the Latin alphabet in 1928 and urged other countries to use the city's Turkish name.[16] However, the historic nameSmyrna is still used today in some languages, such asItalian (Smirne), andCatalan,Portuguese, andSpanish (Esmirna).
The city is one of the oldest settlements of theMediterranean basin. The2004 discovery ofYeşilova Höyük and the neighboring Yassıtepe, in the small delta ofMeles River, now theBornova plain, reset the starting date of the city's past further back than previously thought. Findings from two seasons of excavations carried out in the Yeşilova Höyük by a team of archaeologists from İzmir'sEge University indicate three levels, two of which are prehistoric. Level 2 bears traces of early to mid-Chalcolithic, and Level 3 ofNeolithic settlements. These two levels would have been inhabited by theindigenous peoples of the area, very roughly, between the 7th millennium BC and the 4th millennium BC. As the seashore receded with time, the site was later used as a cemetery. Several graves containing artifacts dating roughly from 3000 BC, and contemporary with the first city ofTroy, were found.[17]
The first settlement to have commanded theGulf of İzmir as a whole was established on top of MountYamanlar, to the northeast of the inner gulf. In connection with the silt brought by the streams which join the sea along the coastline, the settlement to form later the core of "Old Smyrna" was founded on the slopes of the same mountain, on a hill (then a small peninsula connected to the mainland by a smallisthmus) in the present-day neighborhood of Tepekule inBayraklı. The Bayraklı settlement is thought to have stretched back in time as far as the 3rd millennium BC.[citation needed]
Archaeological findings of the lateBronze Age show a certain degree ofMycenaean influence in the settlement and the surrounding region, though further excavations of Bronze Age layers are needed to propose Old Smyrna of that time as a Mycenaean settlement.[18] In the 13th century BC, however, invasions from theBalkans (the so-calledSea Peoples) destroyed Troy VII, and Central and Western Anatolia as a whole fell into what is generally called the period of "Anatolian" and "Greek"Dark Ages of theBronze Age collapse.
At the dawn of İzmir's recorded history,Pausanias describes "evident tokens" such as "a port called after the name ofTantalus and a sepulcher of him by no means obscure", corresponding to the city's area and which have been tentatively located to date.[19] The term "Old Smyrna" is used to describe theArchaic Period city located at Tepekule, Bayraklı, to make a distinction with the city of Smyrna rebuilt later on the slopes of Mount Pagos (present-dayKadifekale). The Greek settlement in Old Smyrna is attested by the presence of pottery dating from about1000 BC onwards. The most ancient preserved ruins date back to 725–700 BC. According toHerodotus the city was founded byAeolians and later seized byIonians.[20] The oldest house discovered in Bayraklı has been dated to 925 and900 BC. The walls of this well-preserved house (2.45 by 4 metres or 8.0 by 13.1 feet), consisting of one small room typical of theIron Age, were made ofsun-dried bricks and the roof of the house was made ofreeds.[citation needed] A house found in Old Smyrna with two floors and five rooms with a courtyard, built in the second half of the7th century BC, is the oldest known house having so many rooms under its roof. Around that time, people started to build thick, protectiveramparts made of sun-dried bricks around the city. Smyrna was built on theHippodamian system, in which streets run north–south and east–west and intersect at right angles, in a pattern familiar in theNear East but the earliest example in a western city. The houses all faced south. The most ancient paved streets in the Ionian civilization have also been discovered in ancient Smyrna.[citation needed]
Homer, referred to asMelesigenes meaning "Child of the Meles Brook", is said to have been born in Smyrna in the 7th or8th century BC. Combined with written evidence, it is generally admitted thatSmyrna andChios put forth the strongest arguments in claiming Homer and the main belief is that he was born inIonia. TheRiver Meles, still bearing the same name, is located within the city limits, although associations with the Homeric river is subject to controversy.
From the 7th century onwards, Smyrna achieved the identity of acity-state. About a thousand people lived inside thecity walls, with others living in nearby villages, where fields,olive trees,vineyards, and the workshops of potters and stonecutters were located. People generally made their living fromagriculture andfishing. The most importantsanctuary of Old Smyrna was the Temple ofAthena, which dates back to 640–580 BC and is partially restored today. Smyrna, by this point, was no longer a small town, but an urban center taking part in theMediterranean trade. The city eventually became one of the twelve Ionian cities and was well on its way to becoming a foremost cultural and commercial center in the Mediterranean basin of that period, reaching its peak between 650 and 545 BC.[citation needed]
The city's port position near their capital drew theLydians to Smyrna. The army ofLydia'sMermnad dynasty conquered the city sometime around 610–600 BC[21] and is reported to have burned and destroyed parts of the city, although recent analyses on the remains in Bayraklı demonstrate that the temple had been in continuous use or was very quickly repaired under the Lydian rule.
Soon afterwards, an invasion from outside Anatolia by thePersian Empire effectively ended Old Smyrna's history as an urban center of note. The Persian emperorCyrus the Great attacked the coastal cities of theAegean after conqueringthe capital of Lydia. As a result, Old Smyrna was destroyed in 545 BC.
Coinage ofKlazomenai, circa 386–301 BC inUrla, slightly outside İzmir urban zone, is associated with some of the oldest known records of trade inolive oil.
Alexander the Great re-founded the city at a new location beyond theMeles River around 340 BC. Alexander had defeated the Persians in several battles and finally the EmperorDarius III himself atIssus in 333 BC. Old Smyrna on a small hill by the sea was large enough only for a few thousand people. Therefore, the slopes ofMount Pagos (Kadifekale) were chosen for the foundation of the new city, for which Alexander is credited, and this act laid the ground for a resurgence in the city's population.
In 133 BC, Eumenes III, the last king of theAttalid Kingdom of Pergamon, was about to die without an heir. In hiswill, hebequeathed his kingdom to theRoman Republic, and this included Smyrna. The city thus came under Roman rule as a civildiocese within theProvince of Asia and enjoyed a new period of prosperity. Towards the close of the1st century, Smyrna was one of theseven churches of Asia mentioned inRevelation 2:9.John the Apostle urged his followers to remain Christians in Revelation 2:10: "Be faithful to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life".
Given the importance of the city,Roman emperors who came toAnatolia also visited Smyrna. In early 124, EmperorHadrian visited Smyrna on his journeys across the Empire[22] and possiblyCaracalla came in 214–215. Smyrna was a fine city with stone-paved streets.
In 178, the city was devastated by anearthquake. EmperorMarcus Aurelius contributed greatly to its rebuilding. During this period, theagora was restored. Many of the works of architecture from the city's pre-Turkish period date from this period.
After theRoman Empire was divided into two distinct entities, Smyrna became a territory of theEastern Roman Empire. It remained a notable religious center in the early Byzantine period but never returned to Roman levels of prosperity.
Smyrna was captured again in the 14th century by Umur Bey, the son of the founder of theBeylik ofAydın who first took the upper fort of Mount Pagos (after that calledKadifekale), and then the lower port castle of Neon Kastron (called "St. Peter" by the Genoese and "Ok Kalesi" by the Turks). As Çaka Bey had done two centuries before, Umur Bey used the city as a base for naval raids. In 1344, a coalition of forces coordinated byPope Clement VI took back the lower castle in a surprise attack in theSmyrniote crusades. Sixty years of uneasy cohabitation between the two powers, the Beyliks holding the upper castle and the Knights the lower, followed by Umur Bey's death in 1348.
Hisar Mosque (1592–1598) in theKemeraltı neighbourhood of İzmirOld Ottoman houses in Urla, İzmirThe port of İzmir, from an 1883 encyclopedia
The upper city of İzmir was captured from its Aydinid rulers by theOttomans for the first time in 1389 during the reign ofBayezid I, who led his armies toward the five Western Anatolian Beyliks in the winter of the same year he had come to the throne. In 1402, however,Timur (Tamerlane) won theBattle of Ankara against theOttomans, putting a serious check on the Ottoman state for the two following decades and handing back the territories of most of the Beyliks to their former ruling dynasties. Timur attacked and destroyed Smyrna and was responsible for the massacre of most of the Christian population, which constituted the vast majority in Smyrna.[28][29] In 1415,Mehmet I took back İzmir for the Ottomans for the second time. With the death of the last bey of Aydın,İzmiroğlu Cüneyd Bey, in 1426 the city passed fully under Ottoman control. İzmir's first Ottoman governor wasAlexander, a converted son of theBulgarianShishman dynasty. During the campaigns against Cüneyd, the Ottomans were assisted by the forces of theKnights Hospitaller who pressed the Sultan to return the port castle to them. However, the sultan refused to make this concession, despite the resulting tensions between the two camps, and he gave the Hospitallers permission to build a castle (the present-dayBodrum Castle) inPetronium (Bodrum) instead.[citation needed]
In a landward-looking arrangement somewhat against its nature, the city and its present-day dependencies became an Ottomansanjak (sub-province) either inside the largervilayet (province) of Aydın part of theeyalet ofAnatolia, with its capital inKütahya or in "Cezayir" (i.e."Islands" referring to "theAegean Islands"). In the 15th century, two notable events for the city were a surpriseVenetian raid in 1475 and the arrival ofSephardic Jews fromSpain after 1492; they later made İzmir one of their principal urban centers in Ottoman lands. İzmir may have been a rather sparsely populated place in the 15th and 16th centuries, as indicated by the first extant Ottoman records describing the town dating from 1528. In 1530, 304 adult males, both tax-paying and tax-exempt were on record, 42 of them Christians. There were five urban wards, one of these situated in the immediate vicinity of the port, rather active despite the town's small size and where the non-Muslim population was concentrated. By 1576, İzmir had grown to house 492 taxpayers in eight urban wards and had a number of dependent villages.[30] This corresponded to a total population estimated between 3500 and 5000.
İzmir's remarkable growth began in the late 16th century when cotton and other products of the region brought French, English, Dutch and Venetian traders here.[citation needed] The emergence of İzmir as a major international port by the 17th century was largely a result of the attraction it exercised over foreigners and the city's European orientation.[31] With the privileged trading conditions accorded to foreigners in 1620 (these were the infamouscapitulations that were later to cause a serious threat and setback for the Ottoman state in its decline), İzmir began to be one of the foremost trade centers of the Empire. Foreign consulates moved fromChios to the city by the early 17th century (1619 for the French Consulate, 1621 for the British), serving as trade centers for their nations. Each consulate had its own quay, where the ships under their flag would anchor. The long campaign for the conquest ofCrete (22 years between 1648 and 1669) also considerably enhanced İzmir's position within the Ottoman realm since the city served as a port of dispatch and supply for the troops.[32] İzmir was also one of the few Ottoman port cities which hada maritime flag.[33]
Despite facing a plague in 1676, an earthquake in 1688, and agreat fire in 1743, the city continued to grow. By the end of the 17th century, the population was estimated at ninety thousand, the Turks forming the majority (about 60,000); there were also 15,000 Greeks, 8,000 Armenians and 6,000 to 7,000 Jews, as well as a considerable section made up ofFrench,English,Dutch andItalian merchants.[34] In the meantime, the Ottomans had allowed İzmir's inner bay dominated by the port castle to silt up progressively (the location of the present-dayKemeraltıbazaar zone) and the port castle ceased to be of use.
In 1770, the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by Russian forces at theBattle of Çeşme, located near the city. This triggered fanatical Muslim groups to proceed to the massacre of c. 1,500 local Greeks.[35] Later, in 1797 a riot resulting from the indiscipline of janissaries corps led to massive destruction of the Frankish merchant community and the killing of 1,500 members of the city's Greek community.[36] In 1818, travellerWilliam Jowett described the distribution of Smyrna's population: Turks 60,000, Greeks 40,000, Jews 10,000,Latins 3,000, Armenians 7,000.[37]
The first railway lines to be built within the present-day territory of Turkey went from İzmir. A 130 km (81 mi) İzmir-Aydın railway was started in 1856 and finished in 1867, a year later than theSmyrna-Cassaba Railway, itself started in 1863.[39] In 1865 the population was estimated by the British (Hyde Clarke) at 180,000 with minorities of 80,000 Greeks, 8,000 Armenians and 10,000 Jews.[40] The wide arc of the Smyrna-Cassaba line advancing in a wide arc to the north-west from İzmir, through theKarşıyaka suburb, contributed greatly to the development of the northern shores as urban areas. These new developments, typical of theindustrial age and the way the city attracted merchants and middlemen gradually changed the demographic structure of the city, its culture and its Ottoman character. In 1867, İzmir finally became the center of its ownvilayet, still called by neighboring Aydın's name but with its own administrative area covering a large part of Turkey's present-dayAegean Region.
In the late 19th century, the port was threatened by a build-up of silt in the gulf and an initiative, unique in the history of the Ottoman Empire, was undertaken in 1886. In order to redirect the silt, the bed of theGediz River was redirected to its present-day northern course, so that it no longer flowed into the gulf. The beginning of the 20th century saw İzmir take on the look of a global metropolis with a cosmopolitan city center. According to the 1893 Ottoman census, more than half of the population was Turkish, with 133,800 Greeks, 9,200 Armenians, 17,200 Jews, and 54,600 foreign nationals.[41] According to author Katherine Flemming, by 1919, Smyrna's 150,000 Greeks made up just under half of the population, outnumbering the Turks in the city two to one,[42] while the American Consul General,George Horton, records 165,000 Turks, 150,000 Greeks, 25,000 Jews, 25,000 Armenians, and 20,000 foreigners (Italians, French, British, Americans).[43] According toHenry Morgenthau and Trudy Ring, before World War I, the Greeks alone numbered 130,000, out of a total population of 250,000.[44][45] Moreover, according to various scholars, prior to the war, the city hosted more Greeks thanAthens, the capital of Greece.[46][47] TheOttoman ruling class of that era referred to the city asInfidel Smyrna (Gavur İzmir) due to its strong Greek presence.[44][45]
Shopping malls in the Mavişehir quarter ofKarşıyaka
Following the defeat of theOttoman Empire inWorld War I, the victors had, for a time, intended to carve up large parts ofAnatolia into respective zones of influence and offered the western regions ofTurkey toGreece under theTreaty of Sèvres. On 15 May 1919, theGreek Armylanded in Smyrna, but the Greek expedition towards centralAnatolia was disastrous for both that country and for the localGreeks ofAnatolia. By September 1922 the Greek army had been defeated and the last Greek soldiers left Smyrna on 8 September 1922.
İzmir Chamber of Commerce in Konak
TheTurkish Army retook possession of the city on 9 September 1922, effectively ending theGreco-Turkish War (1919–1922). Four days later, on 13 September 1922, agreat fire broke out in the city, lasting until22 September. The fire completely destroyed the Greek and Armenian quarters, while the Muslim and Jewish quarters escaped damage.[48] Estimated Greek and Armenians deaths resulting from the fire range from 10,000[49][50] to 100,000[51][52] Approximately 50,000[53] to 400,000[54] Greek and Armenian refugees crammed the waterfront to escape from the fire and were forced to remain there under harsh conditions for nearly two weeks. The systematic evacuation of Greeks on the quay started on 24 September when the first Greek ships entered the harbor under the supervision of Allied destroyers.[55] Some 150,000 to 200,000 Greeks were evacuated in total.[50] The remaining Greeks were expelled to Greece in 1923, as part of thepopulation exchange between Greece and Turkey, a stipulation of theTreaty of Lausanne, which formally ended the Greco-Turkish War.
The war, and especially the events that took place in İzmir, such as the fire, probably the greatest disaster the city has ever experienced, continue to influence the psyches of the two nations to this day. The Turks have claimed that the Greek army landing was marked from the very first day by the "first bullet" fired on Greek detachments by the journalistHasan Tahsin and the bayonetting to death ofColonel Fethi Bey and his unarmed soldiers in the city's historic barracks (Sarı Kışla — the Yellow Barracks), for refusing to shout "Zito oVenizelos" ("Long LiveVenizelos"). The Greeks, on the other hand, have cited the numerous atrocities committed by the Turkish soldiers against the Greeks and Armenians (locals or hinterland refugees) in İzmir. These include the lynching of the Orthodox MetropolitanChrysostomos following the recapture of the city on 9 September 1922 and the slaughter of Armenian and Greek males, who were then sent to the so-calledlabour battalions.[56] The city was, once again, gradually rebuilt after the proclamation of theTurkish Republic in 1923.
In 2020, the city was damaged by theAegean Sea earthquake and tsunami, which was the deadliest seismic event of that year. 117 people died and 1,034 more were injured in Turkey, all but one of whom were from the city of İzmir.[57]
The city of İzmir is composed of severalmetropolitan districts. Of these, the district ofKonak corresponds to historical İzmir, with this district's area having constituted the city's central "İzmir Municipality" (Turkish:İzmir Belediyesi) until 1984. With the formation of the "İzmir Metropolitan Municipality" (Turkish:İzmir Büyükşehir Belediyesi), the city of İzmir at first grouped together its eleven (initially nine)urban districts – namelyBalçova,Bayraklı,Bornova,Buca,Çiğli,Gaziemir,Güzelbahçe,Karabağlar,Karşıyaka,Konak, andNarlıdere – and later consolidated them with an additional nine of the province's districts outside the city proper.[58][59] In 2013,the passing of Act 6360 established all thirty of İzmir Province's districts as part of İzmir's metropolitan area.[60]
In 2024, the city of İzmir had a population of 2,938,292 (in eleven urban districts), while İzmir Province had a total population of 4,493,242.[2][3] Its built-up (or metro) area was home to 3,264,154 inhabitants. It extends along the outlying waters of theGulf of İzmir and inland to the north across theGediz River Delta; to the east along analluvial plain created by several small streams; and to slightly more rugged terrain in the south.[6]
In recent times, İzmir metropolitan area has displayed growth, especially along the western corridor, encouraged by the Çeşme motorway and extending to districts outside the city of İzmir proper, such asSeferihisar andUrla.[62] İzmir is also home to Turkey's second largestJewish community afterIstanbul, numbering about 2,500.[63] TheCatholicLevantines of İzmir are mostly ofGenoese and to a lesser degree ofFrench andVenetian descent.[64]
Turkey is home to tens of thousands ofblack citizens descended from theAfrican slave trade in the Ottoman Empire that can be traced back to the 14th century. Known asAfro-Turks, İzmir and the surrounding areas on the Aegean coast is a central hub for this population.[65]
İzmir has ahot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification:Csa,Trewartha climate classification:Cshk), which is characterized by prolonged, very hot, dry summers, and cool, rainy winters. İzmir's average yearly precipitation is quite ample, at 730.5 mm (28.76 in); however, the vast majority of the city's rainfall occurs from November through March, and there is usually very little rainfall from June to September, with frequent summer droughts. The city received its greatest daily rainfall, 145.3 mm (5.72 in), on September 29, 2006, while the highest wind speed of 127.1 km/h (79.0 mph) was recorded on March 29, 1970.
Maximum temperatures during the winter months are mostly between 10 and 16 °C (50 and 61 °F). Although it is rare, snow can fall in İzmir from December to February, which usually stays for a few hours rather than a whole day or more. The record 32 cm (13 in) of snow depth was recorded on January 31, 1945. Frost does occasionally occur at night almost every winter. During summer, the air temperature can climb as high as 40 °C (104 °F) from June to September; however, the high temperatures are usually between 30 and 36 °C (86 and 97 °F).
Etesian winds (Turkish:meltem,Greek: μελτέμιmeltemi) of the Aegean Sea occur regularly in theGulf and city of İzmir.
Climate data for İzmir (1991–2020, extremes 1938–present)
Asansör (1907) offers panoramic views of the city.
TheAgora ofSmyrna is well preserved, and is arranged into theAgora Open Air Museum of İzmir, although important parts buried under modern buildings wait to be brought to light. Serious consideration is also being given to uncovering the ancient theatre of Smyrna whereSt. Polycarp was martyred, buried under an urban zone on the slopes ofKadifekale. It was distinguishable until the 19th century, as evident by the sketches done at the time. At top of the same hill stands an ancient castle, one of İzmir's landmarks. Other ancient monument include also the Kızılçullu aqueducts inBuca district.
One of the more pronounced elements of İzmir's harbor is theClock Tower, a marble tower in the middle of theKonak district, standing 25 m (82 ft) in height. It was designed by LevantineFrench architect Raymond Charles Père in 1901 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the ascension ofAbdülhamid II to theOttoman throne in 1876. The tower features four fountains placed around the base in a circular pattern, and the columns are inspired by North African themes.
TheKemeraltı bazaar zone set up by theOttomans, combined with the Agora, rests near the slopes ofKadifekale. İzmir has had three castles historically –Kadifekale (Pagos), the portuary Ok Kalesi (Neon Kastron, St. Peter), and Sancakkale, which remained vital to İzmir's security for centuries. Sancakkale is situated in the present-day İnciraltı quarter between theBalçova andNarlıdere districts, on the southern shore of the Gulf of İzmir. It is at a key point where the strait allows entry into the innermost tip of the Gulf at its narrowest, and due to shallow waters through a large part of this strait, ships have sailed close to the castle.[68]
There are ninesynagogues in İzmir, concentrated either in the traditional Jewish quarter ofKaratas or in Havra Sokak (Synagogue street) inKemeraltı, and they all bear the signature of the 19th century when they were built or re-constructed in depth on the basis of former buildings.
The İzmir Bird Paradise (İzmir Kuş Cenneti) inÇiğli, a bird sanctuary nearKarşıyaka, has 205 recorded species of birds, including 63 species that are resident year-round, 54 species of summer migratory birds, 43 species of winter migratory birds, and 30 transient species. 56 species of birds have bred in the park. The sanctuary, which covers 80 square kilometres, was registered as "theprotected area for water birds and for their breeding" by the Turkish Ministry of Forestry in 1982. A large open-air zoo was established in the same district of Çiğli in 2008 under the name Sasalı Park of Natural Life.
The most remarkable museums in İzmir are located inKonak, the city centre. Built for the French Consulate-General in 1906, the seashore façade of the building, theArkas Art Centre, has become one of the most venerable cultural hubs after its acquisition by private initiative in 2011.[69]İzmir Archeological Museum is one of the largest museums in the city, with over 200 thousand artefacts of Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine heritage.[70] The former St. Roche Hospital is now in use as theEthnography Museum, which is dedicated to the Turkish and Ottoman legacy.[71]
İzmir Art and Sculpture Museum is another tourist attraction ─ the exhibitions held by the Turkish government introduce pieces from all over Europe to art enthusiasts.[72] The other featuring museums within the urban sprawl includeİzmir Women's Museum, which promotes the influential Turkish women, the İzmir Mask Museum, the first of its kind in Turkey with over 300 pieces of masks,TCDD 3rd Region Museum and Art Gallery, a railway museum located next to theAlsancak Gar, the İzmir History and Art Museum, featuring ancient artefacts recovered through modern excavations, theİzmir Atatürk Museum, a personal collection ofMustafa Kemal Atatürk andİsmet İnönü's items for the period they stayed in İzmir, and the Ahmet Piriştina Urban Archive and Museum, preserving late-modern İzmir's cultural heritage, historical structures, and the local government documents from the 19th century to this day.[73] TheAgora of Smyrna, aTentative World Heritage Site, enjoys a rich variety of cultural, economic, and political buildings as the previous city centre of Smyrna. It is one of the largestagoras in the world that are located in urban area.[74]
The opposite shore of theGulf of İzmir,Karşıyaka, is home to theBostanlı Open-air Archaeological Museum, featuring pillars and sculptures from 10th century BC to 3rd century AD.[75] On the west end of the city, inBalçova, theİnciraltı Sea Museum operated by theTurkish Naval Forces displays theTCG Piri Reis submarine, theTCG Ege frigate with a naval utility helicopter, and the TCG Kasırga missile boat. In addition, a collection of Ottoman, Republican, and present naval uniforms, decorations, firearms, and weapon systems is available within the adjacent building.[76]
İzmir is often considered the "most liberal city in Turkey".[77][78] Having held first in 2012,İzmir Pride peaked by 50,000 participants in 2018, the second largest in Muslim-majority countries afterIstanbul.[79] Thedemocratic backsliding ended up with a ban on pride parades by the central government, yet people still preserve the annual tradition through tricking the police with bait pre-set event date and locations.[80][81]
The local government has a dedicated directorate to address the challenges encountered by LGBTQ+ individuals, and many politicians openly engage in activities to cooperate with the civil society.[82][83]
İzmir prides itself with its busy schedule oftrade fairs,exhibitions andcongresses. The fair and the festival are held in the compound of İzmir's vast inner city park namedKültürpark in the first days of September, and organized by İZFAŞ, a depending company of İzmir Metropolitan Municipality.
The annual International İzmir Festival, which begins in mid-June and continues until mid-July, has been organized every year since 1987. During the festival, many world-class performers such assoloists andvirtuosi,orchestras, dance companies,rock andjazz groups have given recitals and performances at various venues in the city and its surrounding areas; including the ancient theatres atEphesus (nearSelçuk) and Metropolis (an ancientIonian city situated near the town ofTorbalı.) The festival is a member of theEuropean Festivals Association since 2003.
Theİzmir European Jazz Festival is among the numerous events organized every year by the İKSEV (İzmir Foundation for Culture, Arts and Education) since 1994. The festival aims to bring together masters and lovers ofjazz with the aim to generate feelings of love, friendship and peace.
The International İzmir Short Film Festival is organized since 1999 and is a member of the European Coordination of Film Festivals.
İzmir Metropolitan Municipality has built theAhmet Adnan Saygun Art Center on a 21,000 m2 land plot in the Güzelyalı district, in order to contribute to the city's culture and art life. The acoustics of the center have been prepared byARUP which is a noted company in this field.[84]
In 2015 theBarış Youth Symphony Orchestra was founded, incorporating children with limited opportunities in low-income regions of the city, with the purpose to keep them away from crime on the street. The orchestra, grown up to nearly one hundred members, gives concerts accompanied by notable classic music artists.[85]
İzmir's cuisine has largely been affected by its multicultural history, hence the large variety of food originating from theAegean andMediterranean regions. Population movement fromEastern andSouth East Anatolia regions has enriched the local cuisine. Another factor is the large and fertile area of land surrounding the region which grows a rich selection of vegetables. There is considerable culinary usage of green leaf vegetables and wild plants amongst the residents, especially those with insular heritage, such as the immigrants fromCrete. Some of the common dishes found here are thetarhana soup (made from driedyoghurt and tomatoes), "İzmir"köfte,sulu köfte,keşkek (boiled wheat with meat), zerde (sweetened rice withsaffron) andmücver (made from zucchine and eggs). ASephardic contribution to theTurkish cuisine,boyoz andlokma are pastries associated with İzmir.Kumru is a special kind of sandwich that is associated particularly with theÇeşme district and features cheese and tomato in its basics, withsucuk also added sometimes.[86]
Theport of İzmir is Turkey's main port for exports in terms of the freight handled and itsfree zone is the leader among the twenty in Turkey. The workforce, and particularly its rising class of young professionals, is concentrated either in the city or in its immediate vicinity (such as inManisa andTurgutlu), and as either larger companies orSMEs, affirm their names with an increasingly wider global scale and intensity.[87]
Trade through the city's port had a determinant importance for the economy of the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 19th century and the economic foundations of the early decades of Turkey's Republican era were also laid here during theİzmir Economic Congress.
At present, İzmir area's economy is divided in value between various types of activities, as follows: 30.5% for industry, 22.9% for trade and related services, 13.5% for transportation and communication and 7.8% for agriculture. In 2008, İzmir provided 10.5% of all tax revenues collected by Turkey and its exports corresponded to 6% and its imports to 4% of Turkey's foreign trade.
The province as a whole is Turkey's third largest exporter after Istanbul and Bursa, and the fifth largest importer. 85–90% of the region's exports and approximately one fifth of all Turkish exports are made through thePort of Alsancak with an annualcontainer loading capacity of close to a million.[88]
Göztepe andAltay have won theTurkish Cup twice for İzmir and all of İzmir's teams have periodically jumped in and out ofSüper Lig. Historically, İzmir is also the birthplace of two Greek sports clubs, namely the multi-sport clubPanionios and association football clubApollon Smyrni F.C. which were founded in the city and moved toAthens after 1922.
The city boasts of several sports legends, past and present. Already at the dawn of its history, notable natives such as the son of its first port's founderPelops had attained fame and kingdom with achariot race andOnomastus is one of history's first recorded sportspeople, having won theboxing contest in theOlympiad of 688 BC.
The İzmir Municipal Palace is located atKonak, the city centre.
The İzmir Metropolitan Municipality is the primary local government authority responsible for utilizing public sevrices throughout the province. Constituted as amayor-council government, the body consists of a mayor and 184 councillors at the Municipal Council of İzmir, who are elected for a five-year term.[89]
In addition, İzmir is divided into 30 districts, each served by independent local authorities that provide a similar variety of services within their jurisdiction, yet they possess no authority over critical infrastructure, such as the public transportation and water supply. District municipalities often collaborate with each other and enjoy the expertise of the metropolitan government.[90]
The local government in İzmir partakes in the establishment of numerous organizations in an attempt to enrich the city's cultural heritage. The İzmir Mediterranean Academy, which seeks to promote the adjacent cultures and encourage the academic research of theMediterranean studies, and the İzmir Planning Agency, a government institution to prepare the city for "İzmir Vision 2074" are among the recently founded bodies.[91][92]
Historically, İzmir has been considered the stronghold of the social democrats ─ the city is ruled by the left since the 1980s, albeit under different political parties. Following the rise of theRepublican People's Party in2004 local elections, the main opposition is in government to this day. It is one of the few cities that have never electedRecep Tayyip Erdoğan.[93]
The central government tends to neglect the city, resulting in the disruption of public services.[94] For instance, theincumbent government allocated an arbitrary $77 in funds for a metro project that has been idling for 15 years, while a religious centre in the city received $236 million.[95] Meanwhile, in contrast to Turkey's rulingJustice and Development Party platform in the rest of the country, conservative competitors in Izmir avoid the use of the political party logo, and pledge not to "interfere with the lifestyles".[96]
İzmir has its own local media companies: there are 9 TV channels headquartered in İzmir and broadcasting in theAegean Region, 26 local radio stations and 15 local newspapers.TRT Belgesel (TRT Documentary) is a Turkish national TV channel broadcasting from theTRT building in İzmir.[97][98][99][circular reference]
▪Ege TV |Local TV ▪Kanal 35 |Local TV ▪Sky TV | Local TV ▪Kordon TV | Local TV ▪FRM TV | Online TV ▪Ege Üniversitesi TV |Local TV ▪Ben TV | Online TVBen TV - Ege ve İzmir Haberleri, Güncel Haberler▪Yenigün TV | Online TV ▪TRT Belgesel | National TV
▪Radyo İzmir ▪Romantik Radyo ▪Romantik Türk ▪Radyo 35 ▪Kordon FM ▪İmbat FM ▪Radyo Kordelya ▪Radyo Efe ▪Oynak FM ▪Duygusal FM ▪Sky Radyo ▪Radyo Pause ▪Radyo Ege ▪Ege FM ▪Ege'nin Sesi Radyosu ▪Herkül FM ▪Can Radyo ▪Batı Radyo ▪Radyo Gökkuşağı ▪Yıldız FM ▪Buca FM ▪Radyo Ege Kampüs 100.8 ▪Rock City FM ▪öRT FM ▪Y.Tire FM ▪DEÜ FM[100]
Air pollution in Turkey is a problem in the city, in part due to vehicle exhaust: a 2020 study of coal-fired residential heating estimated the cost of replacing it versus the reduction in illness and premature death.[104] There are 21 public hospitals in İzmir. The healthcare system in Turkey consists of a mix of public and private hospitals. Turkey also has auniversal health care insurance system (SGK)[105] which provides medical treatment free of charge in public hospitals to residents registered with aTurkish identity card number.[106][107][108] One of the largest hospitals in theAegean Region is currently under construction in theBayraklı district of İzmir, with a reported cost of 780 million Euros.[109][110]
Historically, the education network in İzmir consisted of vocation-oriented national schools, and minority colleges that taught in foreign languages. There was no modern higher education institution until the founding of theIonian University by the occupation forces in 1920. It however never operated and was shut down during the Hellenic retreat from Smyrna.[111] The novel Republic did not establish any counterpart as the government centered the resources on bolstering the educational infrastructure inAnkara, the new capital under construction. Established in 1944, the İzmir Higher Economy and Trade School was the first operational university. It was later converted to a social sciences school prior to its eventual merger with theDokuz Eylül University.[112]
TheEge University was founded by the Turkish government in 1955. To this day, it remains the largest and the most influential university in İzmir. The subsequentDokuz Eylül University is an alternative prominent generalist school.
Another government initiative, theİzmir Institute of Technology, albeit not located within the urban sprawl, is considered a compelling university in terms of research opportunities. Offering a scant variety of science degrees, it is the only university in the city where all programmes are taught in English.
There are a total of nine active universities in and near İzmir. The city is also home to well-rooted higher-education establishments that are renowned across Turkey, such as the İzmir Anatolian Vocational High School of Commerce (İzmir Anadolu Ticaret Lisesi) established in 1854, and theAmerican Collegiate Institute (ACI) which was established in 1878.
Historically, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the city was an educational center of the Greek world, with a total of 67 male and 4 female schools. The most important Greek educational institution was theEvangelical School which operated from 1733 to 1922.[113]
İzmir is served by domestic and international flights through theAdnan Menderes International Airport and by modern rapid transit systems serving the entirety of İzmir'smetropolitan area. The city has attracted investors through its strategic location and its relatively new and highly developed technological infrastructure in transportation, telecommunications, and energy.[118][119]
A large bus terminal, theOtogar in the Pınarbaşı neighborhood of the city, has intercity buses to destinations across Turkey. Bus companies' shuttle services pick up customers from each of their branch offices scattered across the city at regular intervals, often free of charge. To facilitate easier access, aHalkapınar—Otogar metro line has long been deliberated but construction has never begun – though throughout his campaign and upon his election as mayor of İzmir in 2019,Tunç Soyer has outlined it as one of his priorities.[120]
Coordinated public transportation was introduced to İzmir in 1999. A body known as UKOME gives strategic direction to the Metro, the ESHOT bus division, ferry operations, utilities and road developments. İzmir has an electronic, integrated pre-pay ticket known as theİzmirim Kart ('My İzmir' Card). The card is valid on all metro and commuter rail lines, buses, ferries, trams, and in certain other municipal facilities. The İzmirim Kart allows for the use of multiple forms of transport within a 120-minute window, combining for a single fare price.[121]
All of İzmir's major districts are serviced by a dense, comprehensive municipal bus network under the name ESHOT. The acronym stands for "Eelektrik (electricity); Ssu (water); Hhavagazı (gas); Ootobüs (bus) and Ttroleybüs (trolleybus)." Electricity, water and gas are now supplied by separate undertakings, andİzmir's trolleybus system ceased to operate in 1992. However, the bus operations, the O of the acronym ESHOT, has retained the original name. ESHOT operates 322 lines with about 1,500 buses and a staff of 2,700. It has five garages at Çakalburnu, Çiğli, Adatepe, Aktepe, and Mersinli. A privately owned company, İzulaş, operates 400 buses from two garages, running services under contract for ESHOT. These scheduled services are supplemented by the privately ownedminibus ordolmuş services.[121]
İzmir Municipality's urban ferry services in theGulf of İzmirİzmir Metro has around 293 thousand daily passengers.
Taken over by İzmirMetropolitan Municipality since 2000 and operated within the structure of their private subsidiary company (İzdeniz), İzmir's urban ferry services for passengers and vehicles are very much a part of the life of the city's inhabitants. 24 ferries shuttle between 9 quays (clockwise: Bostanlı,Karşıyaka,Alsancak, Pasaport,Konak, Karantina,Göztepe and Üçkuyular.) Special lines to points further out in the gulf are also put in service during summer, transporting excursion or holiday makers. These services are cheap and it is not unusual to see natives or visitors taking a ferry ride simply as a pastime.[121]
The metro in İzmir is operated by amunicipally owned corporation that subordinates to the Izmir Metropolitan Municipality. It consists of one line,M1, as the rest of the urban sprawl is served by commuter rail and tram. Starting fromKaymakamlık station on the west end of the city, the line expands inbetween the city centre and provides coverage untilEvka 3 inBornova. The 27-kilometres long M1 carries over 293 thousand passengers on a daily basis.[122]
Over the years, the hike in population and congestion caused the authorities to seek numerous additions to the network. As of 2025,M2, encompassing overKonak andBuca is still under construction and is expected to be introduced to service by 2027.M3, M4, andM5 are among the planned lines.[123]
İZBAN, formerly known asEgeray, is acommuter rail system connecting metropolitan and suburban area of İzmir. It is the busiest commuter railway in Turkey, serving about 150,000 passengers daily.[124] İZBAN is aportmanteau of the words "İzmir" and "Banliyö".
Established in 2006, İZBAN was formed to revive commuter rail in İzmir. İZBAN began operations in 2010 and currently operates a 136 km (85 mi) long system with 41 stations.[125]
İzmir's latest tram system is owned by the metropolitan municipality and operated byİzmir Metro A.Ş. in three independent lines – onein Karşıyaka, opened in 2017, onein Konak, opened in 2018, and onein Çiğli, opened in 2024.[121]
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in İzmir, for example to and from work on a weekday is 62 minutes, and 13% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 15 minutes, while 27% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 10.4 km, while 22% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.[126]
^Romein, Jan (translated by R. T. Clark).The Asian Century: A History of Modern Nationalism in Asia (De eeuw van Azie).University of California Press, 1962. p.170. "In 1930 geographical names were 'turkicized'. [...] Smyrna, Ismir [sic],[...]"
^K. Lambrianides (1992). "Preliminary survey and core sampling on the Aegean coast of Turkey".Anatolian Studies.42. British Institute at Ankara:75–78.doi:10.2307/3642952.JSTOR3642952.S2CID131663490.
^Pausanias.The description of Greece, Volume 2, p. 38.
^According toHerodotus, the Ionian seizure of the city from the Aeolians was celebrated deceit that had occurred in the following manner:Colophonians fleeing internal strife within their Ionian city had taken refuge in Old Smyrna. But soon afterward, these defectors had taken advantage of an opportunity that had presented itself when nativeAeolian Smyrniots had gone outside the city ramparts for a festival in honor ofDionysos, and had taken possession of the city. They forced an agreement upon the former inhabitants, who were obliged to take all their movable assets in the city and leave.
^An earlier siege laid byGyges of Lydia is recounted byHerodotus in the form of a story according to which theKing of Lydia would have attacked the city to avenge the ill-treatment received from its inhabitants a certain Manes, a poet and a favorite of the sovereign.
^Foss, Clive (1976).Byzantine and Turkish Sardis. Harvard University Press. p. 93.ISBN9780674089693.Tamerlane determined to conquer Smyrna... In December 1402, Smyrna was taken and destroyed, its Christian population massacred.
^Samatopoulou-Vasilakou, Chrysothemis (1 January 2008)."The Greek Communityies in the Balkans and Asia Minor and Their Theatrical Activity 1800–1922".Études Helléniques.16 (1–2). Centre de recherche helléniques = Centre of Hellenic Research: 53. Retrieved4 March 2017.This was the second biggest slaughter of the Greek population of Smyrna since 1770, when after the Cesme sea battle, fanatic Muslims massacred 1, 500 Greeks.
^A short line built-inDobruja (now inRomania) was started and finished earlier.Ed. Ralf Roth – Günter Dinhobl (2008).Across the Borders: Financing the World's Railways in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, p. 188.Ashgate Publishing.ISBN978-0-7546-6029-3.
^Stewart, Matthew (2003-01-01). "It Was All a Pleasant Business: The Historical Context of 'On the Quai at Smyrna'".The Hemingway Review.23 (1):58–71.doi:10.1353/hem.2004.0014.S2CID153449331.
^Biondich, Mark.The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 92[1]
^abNaimark, Norman M.Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press, 2002, p. 52.
^Rudolph J. Rummel (1994). "Turkey's Genocidal Purges".Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. p. 233.ISBN978-1-56000-927-6.
^Lord Byron's notes on 8 March 1810 during his travels into the region indicate: "Passed the low fort on the right on a tongue of land – immense cannon mouths with marble balls appearing under the fort walls. Obliged to go close to the Castle, on account of shallows on the other side in [the] large bay of Smyrna."
^"Kardeş Şehirler" [Sister Cities].Famagusta Municipality (in Turkish). Archived fromthe original on 2015-02-16. Retrieved2013-10-19.
^"Mostar Gradovi prijatelji" [Mostar Twin Towns].Grad Mostar [Mostar Official City Website] (in Macedonian). Archived fromthe original on 2013-10-30. Retrieved2013-12-19.
Atay, Çinar. "Once upon a Time, İzmir",Skyline (Istanbul), no. 172 (Nov. 1997), pp. 62–64, 66, 68, [70], 72.N.B.: Amply ill. with reproductions of 19th-century black and white photos.
Philip Mansel,Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages,ISBN978-0-7195-6707-0, New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages,ISBN978-0-300-17264-5
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