Ötzi, also calledThe Iceman, is thenatural mummy of a man who lived between 3350 and 3105 BC. Ötzi's remains were discovered on 19 September 1991, in theÖtztal Alps (hence the nickname "Ötzi",German:[œtsi]) at theAustria–Italy border. He is Europe's oldest known natural human mummy, offering an unprecedented view ofChalcolithic (Copper Age) Europeans.
Because of the presence of an arrowhead embedded in his left shoulder and various other wounds, researchers believe that Ötzi was killed by another person. The nature of his life and the circumstances of his death are the subject of much investigation and speculation. His remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at theSouth Tyrol Museum of Archaeology inBolzano,South Tyrol, Italy.
Ötzi was found on 19 September 1991 by two German tourists, at an elevation of 3,210 m (10,530 ft) on the east ridge of theFineilspitze in theÖtztal Alps on the Austrian–Italian border, nearSimilaun mountain and the Tisenjoch pass. When the tourists, Helmut and Erika Simon, first saw the body, they both believed that they had happened upon a recently deceasedmountaineer.[1] The next day, a mountaingendarme and the keeper of the nearby Similaunhütte first attempted to remove the body, which was frozen in ice below the torso, using a pneumatic drill and ice axes, but bad weather forced them to give up. Within a short time, eight groups visited the site, among whom were mountaineersHans Kammerlander andReinhold Messner.
The body was extracted on 22 September and salvaged the following day. It was transported to the office of the medical examiner inInnsbruck, together with other objects found nearby. On 24 September, the find was examined there byarchaeologistKonrad Spindler of theUniversity of Innsbruck. He dated the find to be "at least four thousand years old" on the basis of thetypology of an axe among the retrieved objects.[2][3] Tissue samples from the corpse and other accompanying materials were later analyzed at several scientific institutions and their results unequivocally concluded that the remains belonged to someone who had lived between 3359 and 3105 BC, or some 5,000 years ago.[3] More specific estimates find that there was a 66% chance he died between 3239 and 3105 BC, a 33% chance he died between 3359 and 3294 BC, and a 1% chance he died between 3277 and 3268 BC.[4]
In the course of recovery attempts and subsequent handling, multiple mishaps occurred. The mummy and its belongings were prodded with ski poles and ice picks, and the hip area of the body was damaged with a pneumatic drill. Ötzi's longbow was snapped, with its bottom part recovered from the ice a year later. Careless handling of the body resulted in the destruction of many elements of the clothing Ötzi was wearing at the time of his death. The mummy's left arm was broken while the body was being forced into a coffin for transportation from Vent to Innsbruck. Fungus began growing on the Iceman's skin while the body was on the mortuary slab in Innsbruck. It was only after five days that scientists initiated a rigorous effort to stabilize the mummy's condition.[5][6]
Border dispute
At theTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye of 1919, the border betweenNorth andSouth Tyrol was defined as thewatershed of the riversInn andEtsch. Near Tisenjoch, the glacier (which has since retreated) complicated establishing the watershed and the border was drawn too far north. Although Ötzi's find site drains to the Austrian side, land surveys in October 1991 ultimately proved that the body had been located 92.56 m (101.22 yd) inside Italian territory, which was in consonance with Italy's original 1919 ownership claim.[7]The province of South Tyrol claimed property rights but agreed to let Innsbruck University finish its scientific examinations. Since 1998, he has been on display at theSouth Tyrol Museum of Archaeology inBolzano, the capital of South Tyrol.[8]
Scientific analyses
The corpse has been extensively examined, measured,X-rayed, and dated. Tissues and intestinal contents have been examined microscopically, as have the items found with the body. In August 2004, the frozen bodies of threeAustro-Hungarian soldiers killed during theBattle of San Matteo (1918) were found on the mountainPunta San Matteo inTrentino. One body was sent to a museum in the hope that research on how the environment had affected its preservation would help unravel Ötzi's past.[9]
Body
Ötzi frozen in the glacier, photographed by Helmut Simon upon discovery in September 1991
By the most recent estimates, at the time of his death, Ötzi was 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) tall, weighed about 50 kg (110 lb), and was about 45 years of age.[10][11] When his body was found, it weighed 13.750 kg (30 lb 5.0 oz).[12][13] Because the body was covered in ice shortly after his death, it had only partially deteriorated. Initial reports claimed that hispenis and most of hisscrotum were missing, but this was later shown to be unfounded. Analysis of pollen, dust grains and theisotopic composition of histooth enamel indicates that he spent his childhood near what is now the South Tyrol village ofFeldthurns, north of Bolzano, but later went to live in valleys about 50 kilometres (31 mi) farther north.[14][15]
In 2009, aCAT scan revealed that the stomach had shifted upward to where his lower lung area would normally be. Analysis of the contents revealed the partly digested remains ofibex meat, confirmed byDNA analysis, suggesting he had had a meal less than two hours before his death. Wheat grains were also found.[16] It is believed that he most likely had a few slices of a dried, fatty meat, which came from awild goat in South Tyrol, Italy.[17] Analysis of his intestinal contents showed two meals (the last one consumed about eight hours before his death), one ofchamois meat, the other ofred deer and herb bread; both were eaten with roots and fruits. The grain also eaten with both meals was a highly processedeinkorn wheat bran,[18] possibly bread. In the proximity of the body, and thus possibly originating from the Iceman's provisions, chaff and grains of einkorn andbarley, and seeds offlax andpoppy were discovered, as well as kernels ofsloes (small plum-like fruits of the blackthorn tree) and various wild berry seeds.[19]
Hair analysis was used to examine his diet in the months preceding his death. Pollen in the first meal showed that it had been consumed in a mid-altitudeconifer forest. Other pollens indicated the presence of wheat andlegumes, which may have been domesticated crops. Pollen grains ofhop-hornbeam were also discovered. The pollen was very well preserved, with the cells inside remaining intact, indicating that it had been fresh (estimated about two hours old) at the time of Ötzi's death, which places the event in the spring or early summer. Einkorn wheat is harvested in the late summer, andsloes in the autumn; these must have been stored from the previous year.[20]
High levels ofcopper andarsenic were found in his hair. This, along with his copper axe blade, which is 99.7% copper, has led scientists to speculate that he was involved in coppersmelting.[21]
By examining the proportions of histibia,femur andpelvis, it was postulated that his lifestyle included long walks over hilly terrain. This degree of mobility is not characteristic of other Copper Age Europeans. This may indicate that he was a high-altitude shepherd.[22]
Using modern3D scanning technology, a facial reconstruction has been created for theSouth Tyrol Museum of Archaeology. It shows the Iceman looking old for his 45 years, with deep-set brown eyes, a beard, a furrowed face, and sunken cheeks. He is depicted as tired and ungroomed.[23]
Health
Ötzi hadTrichuris trichiura (whipworm), an intestinalparasite. During CT scans, it was observed that three or four of his right ribs had been cracked when he had been lying face down after death, or where the ice had crushed his body. One of his fingernails (of the two found) shows threeBeau's lines, indicating he was sick three times in the six months before he died. The last incident, two months before he died, lasted about two weeks.[24] It was also found that hisepidermis, the outer skin layer, was missing, a natural process from his mummification in ice.[25] Ötzi's teeth showed considerable internal deterioration from cavities. These oral pathologies may have been brought about by his grain-heavy, high-carbohydrate diet.[26] DNA analysis in February 2012 revealed that Ötzi waslactose intolerant, supporting the theory that lactose intolerance was still common at that time, despite the increasing spread of agriculture and dairying.[27] Ötzi's lungs were examined endoscopically and were found to be blackened by soot, probably due to his frequent proximity to open fires for warmth and cooking.[28][29][30]
Skeletal details and tattooing
Ötzi had a total of 61tattoos. They consisted of 19 groups of black lines ranging from 1–3 mm (0.039–0.118 in) in width and 7–40 mm (0.28–1.57 in) in length.[31] These include groups of parallel lines along the longitudinal axis of his body and to both sides of thelumbar spine, as well as acruciform mark behind the right knee and on the right ankle, and parallel lines around the left wrist. The greatest concentration of markings is found on his legs, which together exhibit 12 groups of lines.[32] A microscopic examination of samples collected from these tattoos revealed that they were created from pigment manufactured out of fireplace ash or soot.[33] This pigment was rubbed into small linear incisions or punctures.[34] It has been suggested that he was repeatedly tattooed in the same locations, since the majority of them are quite dark.[34]
Radiological examination of his bones showed "age-conditioned or strain-induced degeneration" corresponding to many tattooed areas, includingosteochondrosis and slightspondylosis in the lumbar spine and wear-and-tear degeneration in the knee and especially in the ankle joints.[35] These tattoos may have been part of pain relief treatments similar toacupressure oracupuncture,[32] though Ötzi lived at least 2,000 years before their earliest use in China (c. 1000 BC).[36] Of the 19 groups of tattoos present, nine are located next to, or directly on, acupunctural areas used today, and most of the others are onmeridians and other acupunctural regions and over arthritic joints. Ötzi's abdominal tattoos may have assuaged the intestinal pain caused by his whipworm infection.[34][37]
At one point, it was thought that Ötzi was the oldest tattooed human mummy yet discovered.[38][39] In 2018, however, tattoos were discovered on nearly contemporaneous Egyptian mummies.[40]
Many of Ötzi's tattoos originally went unnoticed, since they are difficult to see with the naked eye. In 2015, researchers photographed the body using noninvasivemultispectral techniques to capture images on light wavelengths imperceptible to humans, revealing the remainder of his tattoos.[34][37]
Clothes and shoes
Reconstruction of the neolithic clothes worn by Ötzi at the Archeoparc Museum
Ötzi wore a cloak made of woven grass[a] and a coat, a belt, a pair of leggings, a loincloth, and shoes, all made of leather of different skins. He also wore a bearskin cap with a leather chin strap. The shoes were waterproof and wide, seemingly designed for walking across the snow. They were constructed using bearskin for the soles, deer hide for the top panels, and a netting made of tree bark. Soft grass went around the foot and in the shoe, functioning like modern socks. The coat, belt, leggings and loincloth were constructed of vertical strips of leather sewn together withsinew. His belt had a pouch sewn to it that contained a cache of useful items: a scraper, a drill, a flint flake, a bone awl and a dried fungus (see#Tools and equipment below).[42]
The shoes have since been reproduced by a Czech academic, who said that "because the shoes are actually quite complex, I'm convinced that even 5,300 years ago, people had the equivalent of acobbler who made shoes for other people". The reproductions were found to constitute such excellent footwear that a Czech company reportedly offered to purchase the rights to sell them.[43] However, a more recent hypothesis by British archaeologistJacqui Wood posits that Ötzi's shoes were actually the upper part ofsnowshoes. According to this theory, the item currently interpreted as part of a backpack is actually the wood frame and netting of one snowshoe and animal hide to cover the face.[44]
The leather loincloth and hide coat were made from sheepskin. Genetic analysis showed that the sheep species was nearer to modern domestic European sheep than to wild sheep; the items were made from the skins of at least four animals. Part of the coat was made from a domesticated goat belonging to a mitochondrialhaplogroup (a common female ancestor) that inhabits central Europe today. The coat was made from several animals from two different species and was stitched together using hides. The leggings were made from domesticated goat leather.[45] A similar set of 5,000-year-old leggings discovered inSchnidejoch,Switzerland, were made from goat leather as well.[46]
Irish and Italian researchers were able to undertake an analysis of the mitochondrial DNA from six different items of the body's clothing and published their findings in the journalScientific Reports. These showed that the shoelaces were made from the European genetic population of cattle. The quiver was made from wildroe deer, and the fur hat was made from a genetic lineage ofbrown bear which lives in the region today.[47][48][49]
Other items found with the Iceman were a copper axe with ayew handle, achert-bladedknife with anash handle and aquiver of 14 arrows withviburnum anddogwood shafts.[51][52] Two of the arrows, which were broken, were tipped with flint and hadfletching (stabilizing fins), while the other 12 were unfinished and untipped. The arrows were found in aquiver with what is presumed to be abow string, an unidentified tool, and anantler tool which might have been used for sharpening arrow points.[53] There was also an unfinished yewlongbow that was 1.82 m (72 in) long.[54]
A replica of Ötzi's copper axe
Among Ötzi's possessions wereberries, twobirch bark baskets, and two species ofpolyporemushrooms with leather strings through them. One of these, thebirch fungus, is known to haveanthelmintic properties, and was probably used for medicinal purposes.[55] The other was a type oftinder fungus, included with part of what appeared to be a complexfirelighting kit. The kit featured pieces of over a dozen different plants, in addition to flint andpyrite for creating sparks.
Ötzi's copperaxe was of particular interest. His axe'shaft is 60 cm (24 in) long and made from carefully workedyew with a right-angled crook at the shoulder, leading to the blade. The 9.5-centimetre-long (3.7 in) axe head is almost pure copper.[56] It was produced throughcasting and did not undergo mechanical hardening. Though copper ore sources in the Alpines are known to have been exploited in Ötzi's time, a 2017 study indicated that the copper in the axe came from southernTuscany.[57] It was let into the forked end of the crook and fixed there usingbirch-tar and tight leatherlashing. The blade part of the head extends out of the lashing and shows clear signs of having been used to chop and cut. Such an axe would have been a valuable possession, important both as a tool and as astatus symbol.[56]
Genetic analysis
Ötzi's full genome was first sequenced in 2012.[58] A new, high-coverage genome with much less modern human contamination was published in 2023.[59]
According to the 2012 study, theY chromosome DNA of Ötzi belongs to asubclade of G defined by the SNPs M201, P287, P15, L223 and L91 (G-L91, ISOGG G2a2b, former "G2a4"). He was not typed for any of the subclades downstreaming from G-L91; however, an analysis of hisBinary Alignment Map file revealed that he belongs to the L166 and FGC5672 subclades below L91.[60] G-L91 is now mostly found in SouthCorsica.[61] Analysis of his mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) showed that Ötzi belongs to the K1 subclade, but cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade (K1a, K1b, or K1c). The new subclade has provisionally been namedK1ö forÖtzi.[62] A multiplex assay study was able to confirm that the Iceman's mtDNA belongs to a previously unknown European mtDNA clade with a very limited distribution among modern data sets.[63] Byautosomal DNA, Ötzi is most closely related toSouthern Europeans, especially geographically isolated populations likeCorsicans andSardinians.[64][65][66][67] Ötzi traced the majority of his ancestry to the Neolithicearly European farmers whomigrated from Anatolia to Europe beginning during the 7th millennium BC, replacing earlierEuropean hunter-gatherers as dominant population.[68] DNA analysis also showed him at high risk ofatherosclerosis andlactose intolerance, with the presence of theDNA sequence ofBorrelia burgdorferi, possibly making him the earliest known human withLyme disease.[58][69] A later analysis suggested the sequence may have been a differentBorrelia species.[70]
The 2023 study on Ötzi's genome found a very high proportion (90%) ofAnatolian farmer-related ancestry – in fact, the highest among European populations of the same time—with a lesser contribution fromEuropean hunter-gatherer-related ancestry, but (in contrast to the 2012 research) no evidence ofSteppe-related ancestry,[71] the disagreement with previous results being attributed to modern human contamination. While the absence in Ötzi's genome of genetic components from Western Steppe Herders (WSH) is not surprising because these"Proto-Indo-European" populationsdid not arrive in Europe until about 2900 BC, the unusually low contribution from theWestern Hunter Gatherers was explained by positing that the genetic mixing between neolithic farmers originating from Anatolia and WHG was still an ongoing process. Examining the genetic sites involved in phenotypical traits, the authors concluded that the Iceman likely had darker skin than present-day Europeans (though not as dark as the Mesolithic Western Hunter-Gatherers), was likely affected by baldness, and may have suffered from obesity-related metabolic disorders. The article also leaves room for environmental factors as indicative of their darker skin complexion, so more studies will be necessary in the future.[71]
In October 2013, it was reported that 19 modernTyrolean men belong to the same paternal lineage (Y-DNA haplogroup G-L91) as Ötzi, and may share a common ancestor with, and/or descend from close relatives of Ötzi. Scientists from the Institute of Legal Medicine atInnsbruck Medical University had analysed the DNA of over 3,700 Tyrolean male blood donors and found 19 (c. 0.5%) who shared the same paternal haplogroup with the 5,300-year-old man.[72][73]
Blood
In May 2012, scientists announced the discovery that Ötzi still had intactblood cells. These are the oldest complete human blood cells ever identified. In most bodies this old, the blood cells are either shrunken or mere remnants, but Ötzi's have the same dimensions as living red blood cells and resemble a modern-day sample.[74][75]
H. pylori analysis
In 2016, researchers reported on a study from the extraction of twelve samples from thegastrointestinal tract of Ötzi to analyze the origins of theHelicobacter pylori in his gut.[76] TheH. pylori strain found in his gastrointestinal tract was, surprisingly, the hpAsia2 strain, a strain today found primarily in South Asian and Central Asian populations, with extremely rare occurrences in modern European populations.[76] The strain found in Ötzi's gut is most similar to three modern individuals from Northern India; the strain itself is, of course, older than the modern Northern Indian strain.[76]
Stomach
Ötzi's stomach was completely full and its contents were mostly undigested. In 2018, researchers thoroughly analysed his stomach and intestines to gain insights on Chalcolithic meal composition and dietary habits.Biopsies were performed on the stomach to obtain dietary information in the time leading up to his death, and the contents themselves were also analyzed. Previously, Ötzi was believed to be vegetarian, but during this study, it was revealed that his diet was omnivorous. The presence of certain compounds suggests what kinds of food he generally ate, such asgamma-terpinene, implying the intake of herbs, and several nutritious minerals indicating red meat or dairy consumption. Through analysis of DNA and protein traces, the researchers were able to identify the contents of Ötzi's last meal, composed of fat and meat fromibex and red deer as well aseinkorn wheat. The results ofatomic force microscopy andRaman spectroscopy analysis reveal that he consumed fresh or dried wild meat. A previous study detected charcoal particles in his lower intestine, which indicate that fire was present during some part of the food preparation process, but it was likely used in drying out the meat or smoking it.[77][78]
After death
Analysis shows that the tissues had converted toadipocere, a mixture offatty acids, before desiccation.Rather than ice, the body had been in water for months over several seasons.[79]
Cause of death
Reconstructions of Ötzi's last days, based on his last itinerary and meals, the state of his wounds, the causes of his death and the damaged and insufficient equipment, following multiple studies
The cause of death remained uncertain until 10 years after the discovery of the body.[80] It was initially believed that Ötzi died from exposure during a winter storm. Later it was speculated that he may have been a victim of aritualsacrifice, perhaps for being achieftain.[81][82] This explanation was inspired by theories previously advanced forbodies recovered frompeat bogs such asTollund Man andLindow Man.[82]
Arrowhead and blood analyses
In 2001, X-rays and a CT scan revealed that Ötzi had an arrowhead lodged in his left shoulder when he died[83] and a small, matching tear in his coat.[84] Researchers theorized that Ötzi died ofblood loss from the wound, which likely would have been fatal even if modern medical techniques had been available.[85] Further research found that the arrow's shaft had been removed before death, and close examination of the body foundbruises and cuts to the hands, wrists and chest andcerebral trauma indicative of a blow to the head. One of the cuts, to the base of his thumb, reached down to the bone but had no time to heal before his death. Currently, it is believed that Ötzibled to death after the arrow shattered thescapula and damaged nerves and blood vessels before lodging near his lung.[86]
DNA analyses taken in 2003 are claimed to have revealed traces of blood from at least four other people on his gear: one from his knife, two from a single arrowhead in his quiver, and a fourth from his coat.[87][88] Interpretations of these findings are that Ötzi killed two people with the same arrow and was able to retrieve it on both occasions, and the blood on his coat was from a wounded comrade he may have carried over his back.[84] Ötzi's posture (frozen body, face down, left arm bent across the chest) could support a hypothesis that, before death occurred andrigor mortis set in, the Iceman was turned onto his belly in the effort to remove the arrow shaft.[89][90]The Cambridge World History of Violence (2020) cited Ötzi as evidence ofprehistoric warfare.[91]
Alternative theory of death location
Most research has assumed that Ötzi died at roughly the spot where he was found.[92] In 2010, it was proposed that Ötzi died at a much lower altitude and was buried higher in the mountains, as posited by archaeologist Alessandro Vanzetti of theSapienza University of Rome and his colleagues.[92] According to their study of the items found near Ötzi and their locations, the Iceman may have been placed above what has been interpreted as a stone burial mound, but his body subsequently moved with each thaw cycle that created a flowing watery mixture driven by gravity before being re-frozen.[93] While archaeobotanistKlaus Oeggl of the University of Innsbruck agrees that the natural process described probably caused the body to move from the ridge that includes the stone formation, he pointed out that the paper provided no compelling evidence to demonstrate that the scattered stones constituted a burial platform.[93] Moreover, biological anthropologist Albert Zink argues that the Iceman's bones display no dislocations that would have resulted from a downhill slide and that the intact blood clots in his arrow wound would show damage if the body had been moved up the mountain.[93]
Legal dispute
The Ötzi memorial near Tisenjoch. Ötzi was found about 70 m (230 ft) northeast, a place indicated with a red mark (not pictured).
Italian law entitled the Simons to a finders' fee from theSouth Tyrolean provincial government of 25% of the value of Ötzi. In 1994 the authorities offered a "symbolic" reward of 10 millionlire (€5,200), which the Simons declined.[94] In 2003, the Simons filed alawsuit which asked a court in Bolzano to recognize their role in Ötzi's discovery and declare them his "official discoverers". The court decided in the Simons' favour in November 2003, and at the end of December that year the Simons announced that they were seeking US$300,000 as their fee. The provincial government decided to appeal.[95]
In addition, two people came forward, each with a claim of being part of the same mountaineering party that had come across Ötzi and of discovering the body first:
Magdalena Mohar Jarc, a retiredSlovenian climber, who alleged that she discovered the corpse first after falling into a crevice, and, shortly after returning to a mountain hut, asked Helmut Simon to take photographs of Ötzi. She citedReinhold Messner, who was also present in the mountain hut, as the witness to this.[96]
Sandra Nemeth, from Switzerland, who contended that she had found the corpse before Helmut and Erika Simon and spat on it to make sure that herDNA would be found there later. She asked for a DNA test on the remains, but experts believed that there was little chance of finding any trace.[97]
In 2005, the rival claims were heard by a Bolzano court. The legal case angered Mrs. Simon, who alleged that neither woman was present on the mountain that day.[97] In 2005, Mrs. Simon's lawyer said: "Mrs. Simon is very upset by all this and by the fact that these two new claimants have decided to appear 14 years after Ötzi was found."[97] In 2008, however, Jarc stated for a Slovene newspaper that she had written twice to the Bolzano court in regard to her claim but received no reply whatsoever.[96]
In 2004, Helmut Simon died. Two years later, in June 2006, an appeals court affirmed that the Simons had indeed discovered the Iceman and were therefore entitled to a finder's fee. It also ruled that the provincial government had to pay the Simons' legal costs. After this ruling, Mrs. Erika Simon reduced her claim to €150,000. The provincial government's response was that the expenses it had incurred to establish a museum and the costs of preserving the Iceman should be considered in determining the finder's fee. It insisted it would pay no more than €50,000. In September 2006, the authorities appealed the case to Italy's highest court, theCourt of Cassation.[95]
On 29 September 2008, it was announced that the provincial government and Mrs. Simon had reached a settlement of the dispute, under which she would receive €150,000 in recognition of Ötzi's discovery by her and her late husband and the tourist income that it attracts.[94][98]
See also
Iceman – a 2017 fictional film about the life of Ötzi
^In the bookCookwise by Shirley Corriher, the point is made (in relation to cooking) that plant leaves have a waterproof, waxycuticle which makes raindrops roll off, with the comment "it was interesting that the 5,000-year-old Alpine traveler ... had a grass raincoat".[41]
^Fowler, Brenda (2001).Iceman: Uncovering the Life and Times of a Prehistoric Man Found in an Alpine Glacier. University of Chicago Press. p. 37 ff.ISBN978-0-226-25823-2.
^Brida, Juan Gabriel; Meleddu, Marta; and Pulina, Manuela (1 November 2012). "Understanding Urban Tourism Attractiveness: The Case of the Archaeological Ötzi Museum in Bolzano".Journal of Travel Research.51 (6):730–741.doi:10.1177/0047287512437858.ISSN0047-2875.S2CID154672981.
^transcript (17 February 2016)."Iceman Reborn".PBS. Retrieved13 September 2018.
^Egarter-Vigl, Eduard (2006). "The Preservation of the Iceman Mummy". In Marco Samadelli (ed.).The Chalcolithic Mummy, Volume 3, In Search of Immortality. Folio Verlag. p. 54.ISBN978-3-85256-337-4.
^Holden, T.G. (2002). "The Food Remains from the Colon of the Tyrolean Ice Man". InDobney, Keith; O'Connor, Terry (eds.).Bones and the Man: Studies in Honour of Don Brothwell. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 35–40.ISBN978-1-84217-060-1.
^<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> (16 September 2002)."Iceman's final meal".BBC News.Archived from the original on 30 March 2015.
^Ruff, Christopher; Holt, BM; Sládek, V; Berner, M; Murphy, WA Jr; Zur Nedden, D; Seidler, H; Recheis, W (July 2006). "Body size, body proportions, and mobility in the Tyrolean "Iceman"".Journal of Human Evolution.51 (1):91–101.Bibcode:2006JHumE..51...91R.doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.02.001.PMID16549104.
^Samadelli, M; M Melis; M Miccoli; E Egarter-Vigl; AR Zink (2015). "Complete Mapping of the Tattoos of the 5300-year-old Tyrolean Iceman".Journal of Cultural Heritage.16 (5):753–758.doi:10.1016/j.culher.2014.12.005.
^Pabst, M.A.; I Letofsky-Papst; E Bock; M Moser; L Dorfer; E Egarter-Vigl; F Hoffer (2009). "The Tattoos of the Tyrolean Iceman: A Light Microscopical, Ultrastructural and Element Analytical Study".Journal of Archaeological Science.36 (10):2335–2341.Bibcode:2009JArSc..36.2335P.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.06.016.
^abcdPiombino-Mascali, Dario & Krutak, Lars (2020). Sheridan, Susan Guise & Gregoricka, Lesley A. (eds.).Therapeutic Tattoos and Ancient Mummies: The Case of the Iceman. Bioarchaeology and Social Theory. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 119–136.doi:10.1007/978-3-030-32181-9_6.ISBN978-3-030-32181-9.S2CID213402907.{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)
^Spindler, Konrad (1995).The man in the ice. Phoenix. pp. 178–184.ISBN978-0-7538-1260-0.
^Dorfer, L; M Moser; F Bahr; K Spindler; E Egarter-Vigl; S Giullén; G Dohr; T Kenner (September 1999). "A medical report from the stone age?".The Lancet.354 (9183):1023–1025.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)12242-0.PMID10501382.S2CID29084491.
^Wierer, U., Arrighi, S., Bertola, S., Kaufmann, G., Baumgarten, B., Pedrotti, A., Pernter, P. and Pelegrin, J. (2018) "The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use".PLOS ONE,13(6): e0198292.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198292 The original caption in Wierer et al. read "The Iceman lithic assemblage. a) Dagger, b) Endscraper, c) Borer, d) Arrowhead 14, e) Arrowhead 12, f) Small flake." The text of Wierer et al.'s paper makes it clear that this a typo and the labels for the borer and small flake have been swapped. e.g.: "The 48.5 mm long artefact known as a borer has its maximum thickness at its maximum width (7.8 x 13.5 mm) (Fig 1F)" and "The smallest item contained in the belt poach is a small flake of 19 x 12.5 x 1.6 mm size (Fig 1C)".
^abWang, Ke; Prüfer, Kay; Krause-Kyora, Ben; Childebayeva, Ainash; Schuenemann, Verena J.; Coia, Valentina; Maixner, Frank; Zink, Albert; Schiffels, Stephan; Krause, Johannes (16 August 2023)."High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry".Cell Genomics.3 (9) 100377.doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377.ISSN2666-979X.PMC10504632.PMID37719142.The weighted genetic score of dark pigmentation in the Iceman is estimated to be 0.591, higher than the score of present-day southern European populations taking Sardinians as an example (Table S11), which the Iceman shares closest genetic affinity to (Figure S1) and which represent the highest level of pigmentation among modern-day European groups,29 although it is lower than the score of ancient LBK farmers and the Luxembourg_Loschbour.DG hunter-gatherer.
^Fowler, Brenda (2000)."The place he came to lie".Iceman: uncovering the life and times of a prehistoric man found in an alpine glacier. New York : Random House. p. 268.ISBN978-0-679-43167-1. Retrieved14 February 2025.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Murphy, William A. Jr.; zur Nedden, Dieter; Gostner, Paul; Knapp, Rudolf; Recheis, Wolfgang; Seidler, Horst (24 January 2003). "The Iceman: Discovery and imaging".Radiology.226 (3):614–629.doi:10.1148/radiol.2263020338.ISSN0033-8419.PMID12601185.. Online pre-publication version.
Bortenschlager, Sigmar; Oeggl, Klaus, eds. (2000).The Iceman and His Natural Environment: Palaeobotanical Results. Wien; New York:Springer.ISBN978-3-211-82660-7..
Fowler, Brenda (2000).Iceman: Uncovering the Life and Times of a Prehistoric Man Found in an Alpine Glacier. New York:Random House.ISBN978-0-679-43167-1..
Spindler, Konrad (2001).The Man in the Ice: The Preserved Body of a Neolithic Man Reveals the Secrets of the Stone Age. Translated by Ewald Osers. London: Phoenix.ISBN978-0-7538-1260-0..
De Marinis, Raffaele C.; Brillante, Giuseppe (1998).La Mummia del Similaun: Ötzi, l'uomo venuto dal ghiaccio [The Mummy of the Similaun: Ötzi, the Man who Came from the Ice]. Venice, Italy: Marsilio.ISBN978-88-317-7073-6.(in Italian)
Fleckinger, Angelika; Steiner, Hubert (2000) [1998].L'uomo venuto dal ghiaccio [The Man who Came from the Ice]. Bolzano, Italy: Folio.ISBN978-88-86857-03-1.(in Italian)
