Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populouscontinent afterAsia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% ofEarth's land area and 6% of its total surface area.[9] With nearly 1.4 billion people as of 2021, it accounts for about18% of the world'shuman population.Africa's population is the youngest among all the continents;[10][11] themedian age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4.[12] Based on 2024 projections, Africa's population will exceed 3.8 billion people by 2100.[13] Africa is the least wealthy inhabited continentper capita and second-least wealthy by total wealth, ahead ofOceania. Scholars have attributed this to different factors includinggeography,climate,[14]corruption,[14]colonialism, theCold War,[15][16] andneocolonialism. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and a large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context, and Africa has a large quantity ofnatural resources.
Afri was aLatin name used to refer to the inhabitants of what was then known asnorthern Africa, located west of theNile river, and in its widest sense referring to all lands south of theMediterranean, also known asAncient Libya.[34][35] This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe, an ancestor of modernBerbers;[36] seeTerence for discussion. The name had usually been connected with thePhoenician wordʿafar meaning "dust",[37] but a 1981 hypothesis[38] has asserted that it stems from theBerber wordifri (pluralifran) meaning "cave", in reference to cave dwellers.[39] The same word[39] may be found in the name of theBanu Ifran fromAlgeria andTripolitania, a Berber tribe originally fromYafran (also known asIfrane) in northwesternLibya,[40] as well as the city ofIfrane inMorocco.
According to the Romans, Africa lies to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer toAnatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographerPtolemy (85–165 CE), indicatingAlexandria along thePrime Meridian and making theisthmus of Suez and theRed Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of "Africa" expanded with their knowledge.
Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":
The 1st-century Jewish historianFlavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named forEpher, grandson ofAbraham according toGen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.
Isidore of Seville in his 7th-centuryEtymologiae XIV.5.2. suggests "Africa" comes from the Latinaprica, meaning "sunny".
Massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptianaf-rui-ka, meaning "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." TheKa is the energetic double of every person and the "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace."[42]
Michèle Fruyt in 1976 proposed[43] linking the Latin word withafricus "south wind", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally "rainy wind".
Robert R. Stieglitz ofRutgers University in 1984 proposed: "The name Africa, derived from the Latin*Aphir-ic-a, is cognate to HebrewOphir ['rich']."[44]
Ibn Khallikan and some other historians claim that the name of Africa came from aHimyarite king called Afrikin ibn Kais ibn Saifi ("Afrikus son of Abraham") who subduedIfriqiya.[45][46][47]
Arabicafrīqā (feminine noun) andifrīqiyā, now usually pronouncedafrīqiyā (feminine) 'Africa', from'afara [' ='ain, not'alif] 'to be dusty' from'afar 'dust, powder' and'afir 'dried, dried up by the sun, withered' and'affara 'to dry in the sun on hot sand' or 'to sprinkle with dust'.[48]
Possibly Phoenicianfaraqa in the sense of 'colony, separation'.[49]
In accordance withAfrican cosmology, African historical consciousness viewed historical change and continuity, order and purpose within the framework of man and his environment, the gods, and his ancestors, and he believed himself part of aholistic spiritual entity.[50] In African societies, the historical process is largely acommunal one, with eyewitness accounts,hearsay, reminiscences, and occasionallyvisions, dreams, and hallucinations crafted into narrativeoral traditions which are performed and transmitted through generations.[51]: 12 : 48 In oral traditions time is sometimesmythical and social, and ancestors were considered historical actors.[d]: 43–53 Mind and memory shapes traditions., as events are condensed over time and crystallise intoclichés.[53]: 11 Oral tradition can beexoteric oresoteric. It speaks to people according to their understanding, unveiling itself in accordance with their aptitudes.[54]: 168 InAfrican epistemology, the epistemic subject "experiences the epistemic object in a sensuous, emotive, intuitive, abstractive understanding, rather than through abstraction alone, as is the case inWestern epistemology" to arrive at a "complete knowledge", and as such oral traditions,music,proverbs, and the like were used in the preservation and transmission of knowledge.[55]
Other migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and theSahara.[66]
The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climatic conditions.[67] At the end of theIce ages, estimated to have been around 10,500BC, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands inAfrica, withrock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered inTassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia.[68] However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5,000BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500BC, due to a tilt in the Earth'sorbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification.[69] The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below theSecond Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central andEastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, inEthiopia.
The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6,000BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa.[70] In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat that was common from Algeria toNubia. Between 10,000 and 9,000BC, pottery was independently invented in the region of Mali in the savannah of West Africa.[71][72] In thesteppes andsavannahs of the Sahara andSahel in Northern West Africa, people possibly ancestral to modernNilo-Saharan andMandé cultures started to collect wildmillet,[73] around 8,000 to 6,000BC. Later,gourds,watermelons,castor beans, andcotton were also collected.[74]: 64–75 Sorghum was first domesticated in EasternSudan around 4,000BC, in one of the earliest instances of agriculture in human history. Its cultivation would gradually spread across Africa, before spreading to India around 2000BC.[75][76]
People around modern-day Mauritania started makingpottery and built stone settlements (e.g.,Tichitt,Oualata). Fishing, using bone-tippedharpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains.[77] In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in an expandingrainforest and wooded savanna fromSenegal toCameroon. Between 9,000 and 5,000BC,Niger–Congo speakers domesticated theoil palm andraffia palm.Black-eyed peas andvoandzeia (African groundnuts), were domesticated, followed byokra andkola nuts. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest.[74]
Around 4,000BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace.[78] This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasingdesertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and encouraged migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa.[78] During the first millennium BC, a reduction in wild grain populations related to changing climate conditions facilitated the expansion of farming communities and the rapid adoption of rice cultivation around the Niger River.[79][80]
By the first millennium BC,ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa. Around that time it also became established in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, either through independent invention there or diffusion from the north[81][82] and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500AD, having lasted approximately 2,000 years,[83] and by 500BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa.Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions did not begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. Copper objects fromEgypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting thatTrans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date.[78]
ThePtolemaics lost their holdings outside of Africa to theSeleucids in theSyrian Wars, expanded intoCyrenaica and subjugatedKush in the 3rd century BC. In the 1st century BC,Ptolemaic Egypt became entangled in aRoman civil war, leading to its conquest by theRomans in 30BC. TheCrisis of the Third Century in theRoman Empire freed the Levantine city state ofPalmyra, whichconquered Egypt; their brief rule ended when they were reconquered by theRomans. In the midst of this,Kush regained independence from Egypt, and they would persist as a major regional power until, having been weakened from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions, invasions byAksum and theNoba caused their disintegration intoMakuria,Alodia, andNobatia in the 5th centuryAD. The Romans managed to hold on to Egypt for the rest of the ancient period.
In theHorn of Africa, there was theLand of Punt, a kingdom on theRed Sea, likely located in modern-dayEritrea or northernSomaliland.[90] The Ancient Egyptians initially traded via middle-men with Punt until in 2350BC when they established direct relations. They would become close trading partners for over a millennium. Towards the end of the ancient period, northernEthiopia andEritrea bore the Kingdom ofD'mt beginning in 980BC. In modern-daySomalia andDjibouti there was theMacrobian Kingdom, with archaeological discoveries indicating the possibility of other unknown sophisticated civilisations at this time.[91][92] After D'mt's fall in the 5th century BC theEthiopian Plateau came to be ruled by numerous smaller unknown kingdoms who experienced strongsouth Arabian influence, until the growth and expansion ofAksum in the 1st century BC.[93] Along the Horn's coast there were manyancient Somali city-states that thrived off of thewider Red Sea trade and transported their cargo viabeden, exportingmyrrh,frankincense,spices,gum,incense, andivory, with freedom from Roman interference causing Indians to give the cities a lucrative monopoly oncinnamon fromancient India.[94]
Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, awet period in the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation that had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, with theKingdom of Wagadu, the local name of theGhana Empire, rising out of theTichitt culture, growing wealthy following the introduction of thecamel to the western Sahel, revolutionising thetrans-Saharan trade that linked their capital andAoudaghost withTahert andSijilmasa in North Africa.[108] Soninke traditions likely contain content from prehistory, mentioning four previous foundings ofWagadu, and holds that the final founding of Wagadu occurred after their first king did a deal withBida, a serpent deity who was guarding a well, to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for assurance regarding plenty of rainfall and gold supply.[109] Wagadu's core traversed modern-day southernMauritania and westernMali, andSoninketradition portrays early Ghana as warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce.[108] Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly ongold heading north andsalt heading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves, located in theforest regions.[110] It is probable that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of manypolities into aconfederated state, whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity.[111] Based onlarge tumuli scattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu, there were further simultaneous and preceding kingdoms that have unfortunately been lost to time.[112][103]
TheBantu expansion constituted a major series of migrations ofBantu peoples from central Africa to eastern and southern Africa and was substantial in the settling of the continent.[117] Commencing in the 2nd millennium BC, the Bantu began to migrate fromCameroon to central, eastern, and southern Africa, laying the foundations for future states such as theKingdom of Kongo in theCongo Basin, theEmpire of Kitara in theAfrican Great Lakes, theLuba Empire in theUpemba Depression, theKilwa Sultanate in theSwahili coast by crowding outAzania, withRhapta being its last stronghold by the 1st century AD.[118] These migrations also prefaced theKingdom of Mapungubwe in theZambezi basin. After reaching theZambezi, the Bantu continued southward, with eastern groups continuing to modern-dayMozambique and reachingMaputo in the 2nd century AD. Further to the south, settlements of Bantu peoples who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen were well established south of theLimpopo River by the 4th century AD, displacing and absorbing theKhoisan.
By theChari River south ofLake Chad theSao civilisation flourished for over a millennium beginning in the 6th century BC, in territory that later became part of present-dayCameroon andChad. Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers inbronze,copper, andiron,[119]: 19 with finds including bronze sculptures, terracotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewellery, highly decorated pottery, and spears.[119]: 19 [120]: 1051 Nearby, aroundLake Ejagham in south-westCameroon, theEkoi civilisation rose circa 2nd century AD, and are most notable for constructing theIkom monoliths and developing theNsibidi script.[121]
The intricate 9th century bronzes fromIgbo-Ukwu, inNigeria displayed a level of technical accomplishment that was notably more advanced than European bronze casting of the same period.[122]
Pre-colonial Africa possessed as many as 10,000 different states and polities.[123] These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as theSan people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of theBantu peoples of central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in theHorn of Africa; the largeSahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms, such as those of theAkan;Edo,Yoruba, andIgbo people in West Africa; and theSwahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa.
By the 9th century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliestHausa states, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states wereGhana,Gao, and theKanem-Bornu Empire.Ghana declined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by theMali Empire, which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century.
In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north. TheKingdom of Nri, which was ruled by theEze Nri, was established around the ninth century, making it one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaboratebronzes, found at the town ofIgbo-Ukwu.[124]
Ruins ofGreat Zimbabwe, which flourished in the eleventh to fifteenth centuries
TheKingdom of Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestlyoba ('king' or 'ruler' in theYoruba language), called theOoni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural centre in West Africa and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted by theOyo Empire, whose obas, called theAlaafins of Oyo, controlled many other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms including theFonKingdom ofDahomey.
TheAlmoravids were aBerber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century.[125] TheBanu Hilal andBanu Ma'qil were a collection ofArabBedouin tribes from theArabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Theirmigration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals wereArabized,[126] andArab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.[127]
Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader namedSonni Ali (1464–1492) founded theSonghai Empire in the region of middleNiger and the westernSudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seizedTimbuktu in 1468 andJenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successorAskia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship.[128] By the eleventh century, someHausa states – such asKano,Jigawa,Katsina, andGobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicingcaravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.
Major slave trading regions of Africa between the 15th and 19th centuries
Slavery had long been practiced in Africa.[129][130] Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.[131][132][133] In addition, more than 1 million Europeans were captured byBarbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.[134]
In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in theNew World, increasinganti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and theBritish Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the BritishWest Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[135]
Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King ofLagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[136] The largest powers of West Africa (theAsante Confederacy, theKingdom of Dahomey, and theOyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form ofpalm oil,cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.[137]
The 1884Berlin Conference regulatedEuropean colonisation and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble".[144] In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between theEuropean empires, which provided the impetus for the colonisation.[145] The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "informal imperialism" – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.[146]
With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African coloniesgained independence during theCold War, and decided to keep their colonial borders in theOrganisation of African Unity conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis onpan-Africanism.[147]
Independence struggles
European colonial presence in Africa as of 1939
Imperial rule by Europeans continued until after the conclusion ofWorld War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence.Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956,Tunisia andMorocco won their independence from France.[148]Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957),[149] becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Over the next decade, waves ofdecolonization took place across the continent, culminating in the 1960Year of Africa and the establishment of theOrganisation of African Unity in 1963.[33]
Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries.[citation needed] Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of thepresidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis—per the criteria laid out by Lührmann et al. (2018), onlyBotswana andMauritius have been consistently democratic for the entirety of their post-colonial history. Most African countries have experienced severalcoups or periods ofmilitary dictatorship. Between 1990 and 2018, though, the continent as a whole has trended towards more democratic governance.[150]
Upon independence an overwhelming majority of Africans lived inextreme poverty. The continent suffered from the lack of infrastructural or industrial development undercolonial rule, along with political instability. With limited financial resources or access to global markets, relatively stable countries such asKenya still experienced only very slow economic development. Only a handful of African countries succeeded in obtaining rapid economic growth prior to 1990. Exceptions include Libya and Equatorial Guinea, both of which possess large oil reserves.
Instability throughout the continent after decolonization resulted primarily frommarginalization of ethnic groups, andcorruption. In pursuit of personalpolitical gain, many leaders deliberately promoted ethnic conflicts, some of which had originated during the colonial period, such as from the grouping of multiple unrelated ethnic groups into a single colony, the splitting of a distinct ethnic group between multiple colonies, or existing conflicts being exacerbated by colonial rule (for instance, the preferential treatment given to ethnicHutus overTutsis in Rwanda during German and Belgian rule).
Faced with increasingly frequent and severe violence, military rule was widely accepted by the population of many countries as means to maintain order, and during the 1970s and 1980s a majority of African countries were controlled bymilitary dictatorships. Territorial disputes between nations and rebellions by groups seeking independence were also common in independent African states. The most devastating of these was theNigerian Civil War, fought between government forces and anIgboseparatist republic, which resulted in a famine that killed 1–2 million people. Twocivil wars in Sudan,the first lasting from 1955 to 1972 andthe second from 1983 to 2005, collectively killed around 3 million. Both were fought primarily on ethnic and religious lines.
Cold War conflicts between the United States and theSoviet Union also contributed to instability. Both the Soviet Union and the United States offered considerable incentives to African political and military leaders who aligned themselves with the superpowers' foreign policy. As an example, during theAngolan Civil War, the Soviet and Cuban alignedMPLA and the American alignedUNITA received the vast majority of their military and political support from these countries. Many African countries became highly dependent on foreign aid. The sudden loss of both Soviet and American aid at the end of the Cold War andfall of the USSR resulted in severe economic and political turmoil in the countries most dependent on foreign support.
There was amajor famine in Ethiopia between 1983 and 1985, killing up to 1.2 million people, which mosthistorians attribute primarily to the forced relocation of farmworkers and seizure of grain by communistDerg government, further exacerbated by thecivil war.[151][152][153][154] In 1994 agenocide in Rwanda resulted in up to 800,000 deaths, added toa severe refugee crisis and fueled the rise of militia groups in neighboring countries. This contributed to the outbreak of thefirst andsecond Congo Wars, which were the most devastating military conflicts in modern Africa, with up to 5.5 million deaths,[155] making it by far the deadliest conflict in modern African history and one of thecostliest wars in human history.[156]
Various conflicts between various insurgent groups and governments continue. Since 2003, there has been an ongoingconflict in Darfur (Sudan), which peaked in intensity from 2003 to 2005 with notable spikes in violence in 2007 and 2013–15, killing around 300,000 people total. TheBoko Haram Insurgency primarily within Nigeria (with considerable fighting in Niger, Chad, and Cameroon as well) has killed around 350,000 people since 2009. Most African conflicts have been reduced to low-intensity conflicts as of 2022. However, theTigray War from 2020 to 2022 killed an estimated 300,000–500,000 people, primarily due tofamine.
Overall though, violence across Africa has greatly declined in the 21st century, with the end of civil wars in Angola,Sierra Leone, andAlgeria in 2002,Liberia in 2003, andSudan andBurundi in 2005. The Second Congo War, which involved 9 countries and several insurgent groups, ended in 2003. This decline in violence coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms, which over the course of the 1990s and 2000s promoted the establishment of permanent, peaceful trade between neighboring countries (seeCapitalist peace).
Improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China,[157] which further spurred economic growth. Between 2000 and 2014, annual GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 5.02%, doubling its total GDP from $811 billion to $1.63 trillion (constant 2015USD).[158] North Africa experienced comparable growth rates.[159] A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.[160] While several individual countries have maintained high growth rates, since 2014 overall growth has considerably slowed, primarily as a result of falling commodity prices, continued lack ofindustrialization, and epidemics ofEbola andCOVID-19.[161][162]
Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largestlandmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by theMediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by theIsthmus of Suez (transected by theSuez Canal), 163 km (101 mi) wide.[163]Geopolitically, Egypt'sSinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa as well.[164]
The coastline is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km2 (4,000,000 sq mi) – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi).[165] From the most northerly point,Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point,Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34°51'15" S), is a distance of approximately 8,000 km (5,000 mi).[166]Cape Verde, 17°33'22" W, the westernmost point, is a distance of approximately 7,400 km (4,600 mi) toRas Hafun, 51°27'52" E, the most easterly projection that neighboursCape Guardafui, the tip of the Horn of Africa.[165]
Africa's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country isSeychelles, anarchipelago off the east coast.[167] The smallest nation on the continental mainland isThe Gambia.
African plate
Today, the African Plate is moving over Earth's surface at a speed of 0.292° ± 0.007° per million years, relative to the "average" Earth (NNR-MORVEL56).
Between60 million years ago and10 million years ago, theSomali plate beganrifting from the African plate along theEast African Rift.[168] Since the continent of Africa consists of crust from both the African and the Somali plates, some literature refers to the African plate as theNubian plate to distinguish it from the continent as a whole.[169]
The climate of Africa ranges fromtropical tosubarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarilydesert, orarid, while its central and southern areas contain bothsavanna plains and densejungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such assahel andsteppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on Earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts.[170] The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, inLibya in 1922 (58 °C (136 °F)), was discredited in 2013.[171][172]
Graph showingtemperature change in Africa between 1901 and 2021, with red colour being warmer and blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 is taken as the reference point for these changes.)
Over the coming decades, warming from climate change is expected across almost all the Earth's surface, and global mean rainfall will increase.[179] Currently, Africa is warming faster than the rest of the world on average. Large portions of the continent may become uninhabitable as a result of the rapid effects of climate change, which would have disastrous effects on human health, food security, and poverty.[180][181][182] Regional effects on rainfall in the tropics are expected to be much more spatially variable. The direction of change at any one location is often less certain.
Ecology and biodiversity
The main biomes in Africa
Africa has over 3,000protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity andarable land. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.[170]
Deforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).[183] According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world.[170] Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed.[184] Over 90% ofMadagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago.[185] About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers fromsoil degradation.[186]
Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" ofwild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of largecarnivores (such as lions,hyenas, and cheetahs) andherbivores (such asbuffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including snakes andprimates andaquatic life such as crocodiles andamphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number ofmegafauna species, as it was least affected by theextinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.
The African Union, not to be confused with theAU Commission, is formed by theConstitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform theAfrican Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as theAfrican Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of thePan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and theProtocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of theOAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union, regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.
Extensivehuman rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,Sierra Leone,Liberia,Sudan,Zimbabwe, andIvory Coast.
African nations have made great efforts to respect international borders as inviolate for a long time. For example, theOrganization of African Unity (OAU), which was established in 1963 and replaced by theAfrican Union in 2002, set the respect for the territorial integrity of each country as one of its principles in OAU Charter.[190] Indeed, compared with the formation of European countries, there have been fewer international conflicts in Africa for changing the borders, which has influenced country formation there and has enabled some countries to survive that might have been defeated and absorbed by others.[191] Yet international conflicts have played out by support for proxy armies or rebel movements. Many states have experienced civil wars: including Rwanda, Sudan, Angola, Sierra Leone, Congo, Liberia, Ethiopia and Somalia.[192]
The countries in this table are categorized according to thescheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.
Although it has abundantnatural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest andleast-developed continent (other thanAntarctica), the result of a variety of causes that may includecorrupt governments that have often committed serioushuman rights violations, failedcentral planning, high levels ofilliteracy, low self-esteem, lack of access to foreign capital, legacies of colonialism, theslave trade, and the Cold War, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging fromguerrilla warfare togenocide).[194] Its total nominal GDP remains behind that of the United States, China, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, India and France. According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.[195]
Poverty, illiteracy,malnutrition, inadequatewater supply and sanitation, and poor health affect a large proportion of the people who reside on the African continent. In August 2008, theWorld Bank[196] announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). Eighty-one percent of thesub-Saharan African population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 86% for India.[197]
Sub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% ofthe population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973,[198] indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programmes spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.[199][200]
Africa is now at risk of being in debt once again, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries. The last debtcrisis in 2005 was resolved with help from the heavily indebted poor countries scheme (HIPC). The HIPC resulted in some positive and negative effects on the economy in Africa. About ten years after the 2005 debt crisis in sub-Saharan Africa was resolved, Zambia fell back into debt. A small reason was due to the fall in copper prices in 2011, but the bigger reason was that a large amount of the money Zambia borrowed was wasted or pocketed by the elite.[201]
From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notablyAngola,Sudan andEquatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded theiroil extraction capacity.
In a recently published analysis based onWorld Values Survey data, the Austrian political scientist Arno Tausch maintained that several African countries, most notablyGhana, perform quite well on scales of mass support for democracy and themarket economy.[202] The following table is projection(s) as of 2024 in terms of the peak level of GDP (nominal) and (Purchasing Power Parity) by theIMF[203] and theWorld Bank.
Tausch's global value comparison based on theWorld Values Survey derived the following factor analytical scales: 1. The non-violent and law-abiding society 2. Democracy movement 3. Climate of personal non-violence 4. Trust in institutions 5. Happiness, good health 6. No redistributive religious fundamentalism 7. Accepting the market 8. Feminism 9. Involvement in politics 10. Optimism and engagement 11. No welfare mentality, acceptancy of the Calvinist work ethics. The spread in the performance of African countries with complete data, Tausch concluded "is really amazing". While one should be especially hopeful about the development of future democracy and the market economy inGhana, the article suggests pessimistic tendencies forEgypt andAlgeria, and especially for Africa's leading economy, South Africa. High human inequality, as measured by theUNDP'sHuman Development Report'sIndex of Human Inequality, impairs the development ofhuman security. Tausch also maintains that the certain recent optimism, corresponding to economic and human rights data, emerging from Africa, is reflected in the development of acivil society.
The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world'scobalt, 90% of itsplatinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of itschromium, 70% of itstantalite,[208] 64% of itsmanganese and one-third of itsuranium.[209] TheDemocratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70% of the world'scoltan, a mineral used in the production oftantalum capacitors for electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves.[210]Guinea is the world's largest exporter ofbauxite.[211] As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, thefood security crisis of 2008, which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis, pushed 100 million people into food insecurity.[212]
In recent years,China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.[157]
AHarvard University study led by professorCalestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favoured Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity."[213]
Electricity generation
The main source ofelectricity ishydropower, which contributes significantly to the current installed capacity for energy.[214] TheKainji Dam is a typical hydropower resource generating electricity for all the large cities inNigeria as well as their neighbouring country,Niger.[215] Hence, the continuous investment in the last decade, which has increased the amount of power generated.[214]
Water development andmanagement are complex in Africa due to the multiplicity of trans-boundary water resources (rivers,lakes andaquifers).[214] Around 75% of sub-Saharan Africa falls within 53 internationalriver basin catchments that traverse multiple borders.[216][214] This particular constraint can also be converted into an opportunity if the potential for trans-boundary cooperation is harnessed in the development of the area's water resources.[214] A multi-sectoral analysis of theZambezi River, for example, shows thatriparian cooperation could lead to a 23% increase in firm energy production without any additional investments.[216][214] A number of institutional and legal frameworks for transboundary cooperation exist, such as the Zambezi River Authority, theSouthern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol,Volta River Authority and the Nile Basin Commission.[214] However, additional efforts are required to further develop political will, as well as the financial capacities and institutional frameworks needed for win-win multilateral cooperative actions and optimal solutions for all riparians.[214]
Africa is considered by anthropologists to be the most genetically diverse continent as a result of being the longest inhabited.[217][218][219] Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and is consequently relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age.[220] The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990.[221] As of 2021, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.4 billion.[1][2] Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000.[222] This increase in number of babies born in Africa compared to the rest of the world is expected to reach approximately 37% in the year 2050; while in 1990 sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 16% of the world's births.[223]
Thetotal fertility rate (children per woman) for Sub-Saharan Africa is 4.7 as of 2018, the highest in the world.[224] All countries in sub-Saharan Africa hadTFRs (average number of children) above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27.1% ofglobal livebirths.[225] In 2021, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 29% of global births.[226]
Speakers ofBantu languages (part of theNiger–Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples fromthe Sahel progressively expanded over most of sub-Saharan Africa.[227] But there are also severalNilotic groups inSouth Sudan and East Africa, the mixedSwahili people on theSwahili Coast, and a few remainingindigenous Khoisan ("San" or "Bushmen") andPygmy peoples in Southern and Central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In theKalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa.[citation needed] Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.[228]
The peoples of West Africa primarily speakNiger–Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though someNilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speakingYoruba,Igbo,Fulani,Akan, andWolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara,Mandinka orMande groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including theHausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as theSonghai,Kanuri andZarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa.
The peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century AD introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The SemiticPhoenicians (who foundedCarthage) andHyksos, the Indo-IranianAlans, the Indo-EuropeanGreeks, Romans, andVandals settled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain withinMorocco andAlgeria in the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya.[229] The Berber-speakingTuareg and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.[230]
Prior to thedecolonization movements of the post-World War II era,Europeans were represented in every part of Africa.[231] Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers—especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 millionpieds-noirs in North Africa),[232] Kenya, Congo,[233] Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola.[234] Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone.[235] Nevertheless,white Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularlyZimbabwe,Namibia,Réunion, andSouth Africa.[236] The country with the largest white African population is South Africa.[237]Dutch andBritishdiasporas represent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.[238]
European colonization also broughtsizable groups ofAsians, particularlyfrom theIndian subcontinent, to British colonies. LargeIndian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The largeIndian community in Uganda wasexpelled by the dictatorIdi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. TheMalagasy people of Madagascar are anAustronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa asCape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities ofLebanese[157] have also developed in the larger coastal cities ofWest and East Africa, respectively.[239]
Alternative Estimates of African Population, 1–2018 AD (in thousands)
Source: Maddison and others. (University of Groningen).[240]
While Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, the majority of the people respect African religions or parts of them. However, in formal surveys or census, most people will identify with major religions that came from outside the continent, mainly through colonisation. There are several reasons for this, the main one being the colonial idea that African religious beliefs and practices are not good enough. Religious beliefs and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive topic for governments with mixed religious populations.[245][246] According to theWorld Book Encyclopedia,Islam andChristianity are the two largest religions in Africa. Islam is most prevalent in Northern Africa, and is the state religion of many North African countries, such as Algeria, where 99% of the population practices Islam.[247] The majority of people in most governments in Southern, Southeast, and Central Africa, as well as in a sizable portion of the Horn of Africa and West Africa, identify asChristians. TheCoptic Christians constitute a sizable minority inEgypt, and theEthiopian Orthodox Church is the largest church in Ethiopia, with 36 million and 51 million adherents.[248] According toEncyclopædia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% followtraditional religions.[citation needed] A small number of Africans areHindu,Buddhist,Confucianist,Baháʼí, orJewish. There is also a minority of people in Africa who areirreligious.
By most estimates, well over a thousandlanguages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa.[249] Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the mostmultilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well.[further explanation needed] There are four major groups indigenous to Africa:
A simplistic view of language families spoken in Africa
TheAfroasiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the Horn of Africa, North Africa, theSahel, and Southwest Asia.
TheNiger-Congo language family covers much of sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of number of languages, it is the largest language family in Africa and perhaps one of the largest in the world.
TheKhoisan languages form a group of three unrelated[251] families and twoisolates and number about fifty in total. They are mainly spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 400,000 people.[252] Many of the Khoisan languages areendangered. TheKhoi andSan peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.
Following the end ofcolonialism, nearly all African countries adoptedofficial languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such asSwahili,Yoruba,Igbo andHausa). In numerous countries, English and French (seeAfrican French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic,Portuguese,Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in formerItalian colonies in Africa. German is spoken inNamibia, as it was a former German protectorate. In total, at least a fifth of Africans speak the former colonial languages.[253][254][255][l]
Health
Prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Africa, total (% of population ages 15–49), in 2011 (World Bank)
over 15%
5–15%
2–5%
1–2%
0.5–1%
0.1–0.5%
not available
More than 85% of individuals in Africa use traditional medicine as an alternative to often expensive allopathic medical health care and costly pharmaceutical products. TheOrganization of African Unity (OAU) Heads of State and Government declared the 2000s decade as the African Decade onAfrican traditional medicine in an effort to promote The WHO African Region's adopted resolution for institutionalizing traditional medicine in health care systems across the continent.[256] Public policy makers in the region are challenged with consideration of the importance of traditional/indigenous health systems and whether their coexistence with the modern medical and health sub-sector would improve the equitability and accessibility of health care distribution, the health status of populations, and the social-economic development of nations within sub-Saharan Africa.[257]
AIDS in post-colonial Africa is a prevalent issue. Although the continent is home to about 15.2 percent of the world's population,[258] more than two-thirds of the total infected worldwide—some 35 million people—were Africans, of whom 15 million have already died.[259]Sub-Saharan Africa alone accounted for an estimated 69 percent of all people living with HIV[260] and 70 percent of all AIDS deaths in 2011.[261] In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa most affected, AIDS has raised death rates and lowered life expectancy among adults between the ages of 20 and 49 by about twenty years.[259] Furthermore, the life expectancy in many parts of Africa has declined, largely as a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with life-expectancy in some countries reaching as low as thirty-four years.[262]
Some aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practised in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools.[263] Leopold II of Belgium attempted to "civilize" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.[263]
Obidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art.[264] According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, "The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art."[265] Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects "lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions."[265] Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that "the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art."[266] Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the "traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe."[267] On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)assert themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies.[268]
There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as theAfrican Renaissance, led byThabo Mbeki,Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, includingMolefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization ofVodou and other forms of spirituality.
African art describes modern and historical paintings, sculptures, installations, and othervisual cultures from native or indigenousAfrican communities and theAfrican continent. The definition may also include the art of theAfrican diasporas, such as art inAfrican-American,Caribbean orSouth American societies inspired by African traditions. Although diverse, there are unifying artistic themes across the visual cultures from the continent of Africa.[270] Often art is and was not created for its own sake, but for social, political, or religious purposes. African art is characterized by an emphasis on conceptual or symbolic representations, rather than imitating nature, aiming to capture the subject's spiritual essence.[271]
Pottery,metalwork,sculpture,architecture,textile art, andfiber art are important visual art forms across Africa and may be included in the study of African art. The term "African Art" does not usually include the art of theNorth African areas along theMediterranean coast, as such areas had long been part of different traditions. For more than a millennium, the art of such areas had formed part ofBerber orIslamic art, with many particular local characteristics.Islamic art is very important in their culture, showing the past and backstory of their culture.
Ethiopian art, with a longstandingChristian tradition,[272] is also different from that of most African art, whereTraditional African religion (withIslam prevalent in the north) was dominant until the 20th century.[273] African art includesprehistoric andancient art, the Islamic art ofWest Africa, theChristian art ofEast Africa, and the traditionalartifacts of these, and other regions. ManyAfrican sculptures were historically made of wood and other natural materials that have not survived from earlier than a few centuries ago, although rare older pottery and metal figures can be found in some areas.[274] Some of the earliest decorative objects, such asshell beads and evidence of paint, have been discovered in Africa, dating to theMiddle Stone Age.[275][276][277]Masks are important elements in the art of many people, along with human figures, and are often highly stylized. There exist diverse styles, which can often be observed within a single context of origin and may be influenced by the intended use of the object. Nevertheless, broad regional trends are discernible. Sculpture is most common among "groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by theNiger andCongo rivers" in West Africa.[278] Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for ritual ceremonies. Since the late 19th century, there has been an increasing amount ofAfrican art in Western collections, the finest pieces of which are displayed as part of the history of colonization.
African art had an important influence on EuropeanModernist art,[279] which was inspired by their interest in abstract depiction.[271] It was this appreciation of African sculpture that has been attributed to the very concept of "African art", as seen by European and American artists and art historians.[280]
West African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs, like the famousBenin Bronzes, to decorate palaces and for highlynaturalistic royal heads from around theBini town ofBenin City, Edo State, as well as in terracotta or metal, from the 12th–14th centuries.Akan gold weights are a form of small metal sculptures produced from 1400–1900; some representproverbs, contributing a narrative element rare in African sculpture; and royal regalia included gold sculptured elements.[281] Many West African figures are used in religious rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. TheMande-speaking peoples of the same region make pieces from wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms and legs shaped like cylinders. InCentral Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles and dots.
African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities.
African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud,mudbrick,rammed earth, and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, theHorn of Africa for stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
Cinematic street poster inTunis,Tunisia for the Egyptian filmSaladin the Victorious (1963, Arabic: الناصر صلاح الدين, Al Nasser Salah Ad-Din) directed byYoussef Chahine starringAhmed Mazhar as Saladin,Salah Zulfikar,Nadia Lutfi and othersCinema of Africa covers both thehistory and present of themaking or screening of films on the African continent, and also refers to the persons involved in this form ofaudiovisual culture. It dates back to the early 20th century, when film reels were the primary cinematic technology in use. As there are more than 50 countries with audiovisual traditions, there is no one single 'African cinema'. Both historically and culturally, there are major regional differences betweenNorth African andsub-Saharan cinemas, and between the cinemas of different countries.[283]
African dance (also Afro dance, Afrodance and Afro-dance)[286][287][288][289][290] refers to the various dance styles ofsub-Saharan Africa. These dances are closely connected with the traditionalrhythms andmusic traditions of the region. Music and dancing is an integral part of many traditional African societies. Songs and dances facilitate teaching and promoting social values, celebrating special events and major life milestones, performingoral history and other recitations, and spiritual experiences.[291] African dance uses the concepts ofpolyrhythm and total body articulation.[292] African dances are a collective activity performed in large groups, with significant interaction between dancers and onlookers in the majority of styles.[293]
Fifty-four African countries havefootball teams in theConfederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recentFIFA World Cups. Morocco, at the2022 World Cup in Qatar was the first African nation to reach the semi-finals of the FIFA Men's World Cup. South Africa hosted the2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so. The top clubs in each African football league play theCAF Champions League, while lower-ranked clubs compete inCAF Confederation Cup.
In recent years, the continent has progressed in terms of state-of-the-artbasketball facilities, which have been built in cities such asCairo,Dakar,Johannesburg,Kigali,Luanda andRades.[294] The number of African basketball players who drafted into the U.S.NBA has experienced growth in the 2010s.[295]
Rugby is popular in several southern African nations.Namibia andZimbabwe have appeared on multiple occasions at theRugby World Cup, while South Africa is the most successful national team at the Rugby World Cup, having won the tournament on four occasions, in 1995, 2007, 2019, and 2023.[296]
^This characterisation has come under criticism by some African scholars, as it implies conflict between the oral and written. They instead contend that in reality, the characterisation is defined by the interaction between three ways of expression and diffusion: the oral, the written, and the printed word.[21]Bethwell Allan Ogot notes that images of Africa composed by Western writers have often been in terms of "opposites" and how they differ from "us".[22]
^In stateless societies, oral histories centred around clan histories.[30]John Lonsdale famously said that "the most distinctively African contribution to human history could be said to have been precisely the civilized art of living fairly peaceably togethernot in states".[31]
^In these cases, time's duration is not as it affects the fate of the individual, but the pulse of the social group. It is not a river flowing in one direction from a known source to a known outlet. Generally, traditional African time involveseternity in both directions, unlikeChristians who consider eternity to operate in one direction. In Africananimism, time is an arena where both the group and the individual struggle for theirvitality. The goal is to improve their situation, thus being dynamic.Bygone generations remain contemporary, and as influential as they were during their lifetime, if not more so. In these circumstances causality operates in a forward direction from past to present and from present to future, however direct intervention can operate in any direction.[52]: 44, 49
^Also known as the Partition of Africa, the Conquest of Africa, or the Rape of Africa
^Egypt is generally considered atranscontinental country in Northern Africa (UN region) and Western Asia; population and area figures are for African portion only, west of theSuez Canal.
^The previous three references show that there a total of 130 million English speakers, 120 million French speakers, and over 30 million Portuguese speakers in Africa, making them about 20% of Africa's 2022 population of 1.4 billion people.
^Mbiti, John S (1992).Introduction to African religion. East African Publishers.ISBN9780435940027.When Africans are converted to other religions, they often mix their traditional religion with the one to which they are converted. In this way they are not losing something valuable, but are gaining something from both religious customs
^Schneider, S. H.; et al. (2007). "19.3.3 Regional vulnerabilities". In Parry, M.L.; et al. (eds.).Chapter 19: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website.ISBN978-0-521-88010-7. Archived fromthe original on 12 March 2013. Retrieved15 September 2011.
^Niang, I., O.C. Ruppel, M.A. Abdrabo, A. Essel, C. Lennard, J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, "2014: Africa". In:Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, and New York, pp. 1199–1265.https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf,Archived 19 June 2020 at theWayback Machine.
^Georges, Karl Ernst (1913–1918)."Afri". In Georges, Heinrich (ed.).Ausführliches lateinisch-deutsches Handwörterbuch (in German) (8th ed.). Archived fromthe original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved20 September 2015.
^Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879)."Afer".A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved20 September 2015.
^Vycichl, W. (1 November 1985)."Africa".Encyclopédie berbère (in French) (2):216–217.doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.888.ISSN1015-7344.Etymology: The Latin designation (Africa) originally meant the land of the Afri, an indigenous tribe of present-day northern Tunisia, often confused with the Carthaginians, but Livy clearly distinguishes the Afri from the Carthaginians:- "Hasdrubal placed the Carthaginians on the right wing and the Afri on the left"- "the Carthaginians and the African veterans"- "the Carthaginians had Afri and Numidians as mercenaries"- "the horsemen of the Libyphoenicians, a Carthaginian tribe mixed with Afri
^Venter & Neuland,NEPAD and the African Renaissance (2005), p. 16.
^Desfayes, Michel (25 January 2011)."The Names of Countries".michel-desfayes.org. Archived from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved9 April 2019.Africa. From the name of an ancient tribe in Tunisia, theAfri (adjective:Afer). The name is still extant today asIfira andIfri-n-Dellal in Greater Kabylia (Algeria). A Berber tribe was calledBeni-Ifren in the Middle Ages andIfurace was the name of a Tripolitan people in the 6th century. The name is from the Berber languageifri 'cave'. Troglodytism was frequent in northern Africa and still occurs today in southern Tunisia. Herodote wrote that the Garamantes, a North African people, used to live in caves. The Ancient Greek calledtroglodytēs an African people who lived in caves.Africa was coined by the Romans and'Ifriqiyeh' is the arabized Latin name. (Most details from Decret & Fantar, 1981).
^Eyma, A. K. and C. J. Bennett. (2003)Delts-Man in Yebu: Occasional Volume of the Egyptologists' Electronic Forum No. 1, Universal Publishers. p. 210.ISBN1-58112-564-X.
^Mercier, Norbert; et al. (2012). "OSL dating of quaternary deposits associated with the parietal art of the Tassili-n-Ajjer plateau (Central Sahara)".Quaternary Geochronology.10:367–373.Bibcode:2012QuGeo..10..367M.doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2011.11.010.
^"Katanda Bone Harpoon Point". The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. 22 January 2010.Archived from the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved19 February 2019.
^abcO'Brien, Patrick K. ed. (2005)Oxford Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 22–23.ISBN978-0199746538
^Anderson, J. R. (2012). "Kerma".The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History.doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15224.ISBN9781444338386. She states, "To date, Kerma-culture has been found from the region of the First Cataract to upstream of the Fourth Cataract."
^Eric Herbert Warmington,The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India, p. 187.
^George Hatke,Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa, (New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44.ISBN0-7486-0106-6.
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