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Yogi

(Redirected fromYogin)
For other uses, seeYogi (disambiguation).

Ayogi is a practitioner ofYoga,[1] including asannyasin or practitioner ofmeditation inIndian religions.[2] The feminine form, sometimes used in English, isyogini.

Bronze figure of a yogi inDhyana (meditation) byMalvina Hoffman
This article containsIndic text. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Yogi has since the 12th centuryCE also denoted members of theNathsiddha tradition ofHinduism,[3] and inHinduism,Buddhism andJainism, a practitioner oftantra.[4][5] In Hindu mythology, the godShiva and the goddessParvati are depicted as an emblematic yogi–yogini pair.[6]

Etymology

InClassical Sanskrit, the wordyogi (Sanskrit: mascyogī,योगी; femyoginī) is derived fromyogin, which refers to a practitioner of yoga.Yogi is technically male, andyoginī is the term used for female practitioners.[4] The two terms are still used with those meanings today, but the wordyogi is also used generically to refer to both male and female practitioners of yoga and related meditative practices belonging to any religion or spiritual method.

The term yogini is also used for divine goddesses and enlightened mothers, all revered as aspects of themother goddess,Devi.[7]

A yogi should not be confused with someone practicingasceticism and excessive self-mortification.[2]: 297 

Hinduism

InHinduism the termyogi refers to an adherent ofyoga.[1]

Textual references

The earliest evidence of yogis and their spiritual tradition, statesKarel Werner,[8] is found in theKeśin hymn 10.136 of theRigveda,[note 1] though with the terminology ofRudra who evolved intoShiva worshipped as the lord of Yoga in later Hinduism.[8] The Hindu scripture Rigveda uses words of admiration for the Yogis, whom it refers to as Keśin, and describes them as follows (abridged):[8]

Carrying within oneself fire and poison, heaven and earth, ranging from enthusiasm and creativity to depression and agony, from the heights of spiritual bliss to the heaviness of earth-bound labor. This is true of man in general and the [Vedic] Keśin in particular, but the latter has mastered and transformed these contrary forces and is a visible embodiment of accomplished spirituality. He is said to be light and enlightenment itself. The Keśin does not live a normal life of convention. His hair and beard grow longer, he spends long periods of time in absorption, musing and meditating and therefore he is called "sage" (muni). They wear clothes made of yellow rags fluttering in the wind, or perhaps more likely, they go naked, clad only in the yellow dust of the Indian soil. But their personalities are not bound to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind when the gods enter them. He is someone lost in thoughts: he is miles away.

— Karel Werner (1977), "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of theKeśin Hymn"[8]

The term yogin appears inKatyayana Shrauta-sutra and chapter 6 of Maitri Upanishad, where the implied context and meaning is "a follower of the Yoga system, a contemplative saint".[9]

The term sometimes refers to a person who belongs to the Natha tradition.[3] They usually belong toShaiva tradition, but some Natha belong to theVaishnava tradition.[10] In both cases, states David Lorenzen, they practice yoga and their principal god tends to beNirguna, that is a god that is without form and semi-monistic,[10] influenced in the medieval era by theAdvaita Vedanta school of Hinduism,Madhyamaka school of Buddhism, as well as Tantra and Yogic practices.[11][12]

 
A 10th-century Yogini statue from Tamil Nadu, India. She is seated in anasana, and her eyes are closed in meditative state.

The Yoga-Bhashya (400 CE),[13] the oldest extant commentary on the Yoga-Sutra offers the following fourfold classification of yogis:[14][15]

  1. Prathama-kalpika (neophyte/beginner, devotional)
  2. Madhu-bhumika (one who has begun to enjoy the spiritual pursuits without effort)
  3. Prajna-jyoti (the advanced practitioner who knows spiritual concepts)
  4. Atikranta- bhavaniya (those who have attained what can be taught, achievedsiddhas, and are on their personal path to ultimate insights)

Sexuality

A yogi or yogini aspires toBrahmacharya (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मचर्य), which means celibacy if single, or non-cheating on one's partner.[16][17]

There have been two parallel views, in Hindu texts, on sexuality for a yogi and yogini. One view asserts restraint in sexual activity, towardsmonk- andnun-like asexuality, as transmutation away from worldly desires and onto a spiritual path.[18] It is not considered, states Stuart Sovatsky, as a form of moralistic repression but a personal choice that empowers the yoga practitioner to redirect his or her energies.[18] The second view, found particularly inTantra traditions according toDavid Gordon White, asserts that sexuality is an additional means for a yogi or yogini to journey towards and experience the bliss of "one realized god-consciousness for oneself".[19] In the second view, sexuality is a yogic practice,[20] and one broadly revered through thelingam–yoni iconography ofShiva–Parvati, the divine yogi–yogini in Hindu mythology.[21]

Ethical duties

Further information:Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)

Both a yogi and a philosopher are seekers of an absolute truth. But they differ in their modes of approach. A philosopher advances in the path of rational logic (theory) and wants to intellectually understand the Truth. A yogi advances in the path of self discipline (practice) and aspires to spiritually realize truth.

—Akshaya Banerjea,Philosophy ofGorakhnath[2]

A yogi or yogini lives by other voluntary ethical precepts calledYamas andNiyamas.[22][23] These include:[24][25][26]

  • Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा):nonviolence, non-harming other living beings[27]
  • Satya (सत्य): truthfulness, non-falsehood[16][27]
  • Asteya (अस्तेय): not stealing[27]
  • Dayā (दया): kindness, compassion[28]
  • Ārjava (आर्जव): non-hypocrisy, sincerity[29]
  • Kṣamā (क्षमा): forgiveness[28]
  • Dhṛti (धृति): fortitude
  • Mitāhāra (मितहार): moderation in diet both in terms of quantity and quality
  • Śauca (शौच): purity, cleanliness
  • Tapas: austerity, persistence and perseverance in one's purpose[30][31]
  • Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances as they are, optimism for self[32]
  • Dāna: generosity, charity, sharing with others[33]

Nath siddha

 
A sculpture ofGorakhnath, a celebrated yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga.[34]

According to David White,

[S]iddha means 'realized, perfected one',[note 2] a term generally applied to a practitioner (sādhaka,sadhu) who has, through his practice (sadhana), realized his dual goal of superhuman powers (siddhis, 'realizations', 'perfections') and bodily immortality (jivanmukti).[35]

Respect

Archeological evidence suggests that in some contexts and regions, yogi of theNath Siddha tradition were respected and recognized in India. For example, inscriptions suggest a general of the Yadava king Ramacandra donated a village to a yogi in 13th-century.[36] Near Mangalore, that later became a hub of Nath yogis, a monastery and temple was dedicated to yogis in the 10th century.[36]

David Lorenzen states that the Nath yogis have been very popular with the rural population in South Asia, with medieval era "tales and stories about Nath yogis such as Gorakhnath, Matsyendra, Jalandhar, Gopichand, Bharthari, Kanhapa and Chaurangi" continuing to be remembered in contemporary times, in the Deccan, western and northern states of India and in Nepal.[10]

Persecution

In some contexts, adds White, the termyogi has also been a pejorative term used in medieval India for a Nath siddha, particularly on the part of India's social, cultural and religious elites.[3] The termsiddha has become a broad sectarian appellation, applying to Saiva-devotees in theDeccan (Maheśvara siddhas), alchemists in Tamil Nadu (siddhars orsittars), a group of early Buddhisttantrikas from Bengal (mahasiddhas,siddhacaryas), the alchemists of medieval India (rasa siddha), and a mainly north Indian group known as theNath siddhas.[35] The Nath siddhas are the only still existing representatives of the medieval Tantric tradition, which had disappeared due to its excesses.[37] While the Nath siddhas enjoyed persistent popular success, they attracted the scorn of the elite classes.[37]

 
17th century Hindu female Nath yogis. The earliest records mentioning female Nath yogis (or yogini) trace to 11th century.[38]

According to White, the termyogi, has "for at least eight hundred years, been an all-purpose term employed to designate those Saiva specialists whom orthodox Hindus have considered suspect, heterodox, and even heretical in their doctrine and practice".[1] The yoga as practiced by these Yogis, states White, is more closely identified in the eyes of those critics with black magic, sorcery and sexual perversions than with yoga in the conventional sense of the word.[39]

The Nath Yogis were targets of Islamic persecution in theMughal Empire. The texts of Yogi traditions from this period, state Shail Mayaram, refer to oppressions by Mughal officials such as governor. The Mughal documents confirm the existence of Nath Yogis in eachpargana (household neighborhoods), and their persecution wherein Nath Yogis were beheaded byAurangzeb.[40]

Resistance to persecution

According to David Lorenzen, the religious groups in Hinduism that militarized and took up arms following theMuslim conquest of India, to resist persecution, appeared among the Nath or Kanphata yogis, often called simply yogis or jogis.[41]

The warriorascetics were institutionalized as a religious order by Gorakhnath and were expanding in the 13th century, after the establishment of the first Islamic Sultanate in India. They interacted and cooperated withfakirs of Sufi Muslims.[42] The yogis feature prominently in Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire period official documents, states David White, both in terms of impressing the ruling elite in the Muslim administration and awards of receiving land grants in some cases such as byAkbar, as well as those yogis who targeted the elite merchants and disrupted the business of administrative Islamic elites in urban areas.[42][43] In other cases, yogis from the Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism marshaled armed resistance against the Mughal and British colonial armies.[42][43]

Cultural contributions: founding Hindu temples

The history of Nath yogis has been diverse, such as in the 11th and 12th centuries, when Buddhists in South India converted to Nath siddha traditions and helped establish Shiva Hindu temples and monasteries.[44]

See also

Notes

  1. ^Sanskrit Original: (Wikisource of the Keśin hymn); Rigveda 10.136, 2nd millennium BCE
  2. ^Compare Siddhartha Gautama, one of the names ofBuddha.

References

  1. ^abcWhite 2012, p. 8.
  2. ^abcA. K. Banerjea (2014),Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha,Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-8120805347, pp. xxiii, 297–299, 331
  3. ^abcWhite 2012, p. 8-9.
  4. ^abRita Gross (1993),Buddhism After Patriarchy, SUNY Press,ISBN 978-0791414033, pages 85–88
  5. ^David Gordon White (2013),Tantra in Practice,Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN 978-8120817784, pp. xiii–xv
  6. ^Stella Kramrisch (1994),The Presence of Siva,Princeton University Press,ISBN 978-0691019307, pp. 305–309, 356
  7. ^Vidya Dehejia and Thomas B. Coburn (1999),Devi: The Great Goddess, Smithsonian Institution,ISBN 978-3791321295, p. 386
  8. ^abcdWerner, Karel (1977). "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136)".Religious Studies.13 (3):289–302.doi:10.1017/S0034412500010076.S2CID 170592174.The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted.
  9. ^yoginArchived 7 June 2019 at theWayback Machine,Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
  10. ^abcDavid N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012),Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths, SUNY Press,ISBN 978-1438438900, pp. x–xi
  11. ^David Lorenzen (2004),Religious Movements in South Asia, 600–1800, Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0195664485, pp. 310–311
  12. ^David N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012),Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths, SUNY Press,ISBN 978-1438438900, pp. 24–25
  13. ^Rosen 2012, p. 72.
  14. ^Feuerstein 2000, p. 343.
  15. ^SH Aranya (1983),Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali, SUNY Press,ISBN 978-0873957281, pp. 334–337
  16. ^abArti Dhand (2002), "The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism",Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pp. 347–372
  17. ^Yajnavalkya tells Gargi in verse 1.55 ofYoga Yajnavalkya that one who copulates (मैथुन) only with and always with one's sexual partner is a Brahmachari; see "योगयाज्ञवल्क्य १-५५Archived 20 January 2016 at theWayback Machine" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"),SanskritDocuments Archives (2009)
  18. ^abStuart Sovatsky (1987), "The pleasures of celibacy",Yoga Journal, March/April Issue, pp. 41–47
  19. ^White 2012, pp. 1–6.
  20. ^Machelle Seibel and Hari Kaur Khalsa (2002),A Woman's Book of Yoga, Penguin,ISBN 978-1583331378, pp. 108–109
  21. ^Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1981),Siva: The Erotic Ascetic, Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0195202502, pp. 262–263
  22. ^K. N. Aiyar (1914),Thirty Minor Upanishads, Kessinger Publishing,ISBN 978-1164026419, chapter 22, pp. 173–176
  23. ^Lorenzen, David (1972).The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas. University of California Press. pp. 186–190.ISBN 978-0520018426.
  24. ^"योगयाज्ञवल्क्य प्रथमोऽध्यायArchived 20 January 2016 at theWayback Machine" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"),SanskritDocuments Archives (2009)
  25. ^Āgāśe, K. S. (1904).Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Puṇe, India: Ānandāśrama. p. 102.
  26. ^Svātmārāma; Sinh, Pancham (1997).The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (5th ed.). Forgotten Books. p. 14.ISBN 9781605066370.अथ यम-नियमाः अहिंसा सत्यमस्तेयं बरह्यछर्यम कश्हमा धृतिः दयार्जवं मिताहारः शौछम छैव यमा दश १७
  27. ^abcJames Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)",The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing.ISBN 9780823931798, p. 777
  28. ^abStuart Sovatsky (1998),Words from the Soul: Time East/West Spirituality and Psychotherapeutic Narrative, State University of New York,ISBN 978-0791439494, p. 21
  29. ^J Sinha,Indian Psychology, p. 142, atGoogle Books, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidas,OCLC 1211693, p. 142
  30. ^W. O. Kaelber (1976). "'Tapas', Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda",History of Religions, 15(4), pp. 343–386
  31. ^S. A. Bhagwat (2008), "Yoga and Sustainability".Journal of Yoga, Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1–14
  32. ^N. Tummers (2009),Teaching Yoga for Life,ISBN 978-0736070164, p 16–17
  33. ^William Owen Cole (1991),Moral Issues in Six Religions, Heinemann,ISBN 978-0435302993, pp. 104–105
  34. ^Akshaya Kumar Banerjea (1983).Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xxi.ISBN 978-81-208-0534-7.
  35. ^abWhite 2012, p. 2.
  36. ^abWhite 2012, p. 94.
  37. ^abWhite 2012, p. 7.
  38. ^Alf Hiltebeitel; Kathleen M. Erndl (2000).Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses. New York University Press. pp. 40–41.ISBN 978-0-8147-3619-7.
  39. ^White 2012, p. 9.
  40. ^Shail Mayaram (2003),Against History, Against State, Columbia University Press,ISBN 978-0231127301, pp. 40–41, 39
  41. ^David Lorenzen (2006),Who Invented Hinduism?, Yoda Press,ISBN 978-8190227261, pp. 51–63
  42. ^abcDavid Gordon White (2011),Sinister Yogis, University of Chicago Press,ISBN 978-0226895147, pp. 198–207
  43. ^abWilliam Pinch (2012),Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press,ISBN 978-1107406377, pp. 4–9, 28–34, 61–65, 150–151, 189–191, 194–207
  44. ^White 2012, pp. 94–101.

Sources

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