Later,Hero of Alexandria (Heron) in first-centuryRoman Egypt described what appears to be a wind-driven wheel to power a machine.[7][8] His description of a wind-poweredorgan is not a practical windmill but was either an early wind-powered toy or a design concept for a wind-powered machine that may or may not have been a working device, as there is ambiguity in the text and issues with the design.[9] Another early example of a wind-driven wheel was theprayer wheel, which is believed to have been first used inTibet andChina, though there is uncertainty over the date of its first appearance, which could have been eitherc. 400, the 7th century,[10] or after the 9th century.[9]
One of the earliest recorded working windmill designs found was invented sometime around 700–900 AD inPersia.[11][12] This design was the panemone, with vertical lightweight wooden sails attached by horizontal struts to a central vertical shaft. It was first built to pump water and subsequently modified to grindgrain as well.[13][14]
The Persian horizontal windmill, the first practical windmill.Hooper's Mill, Margate, Kent, an eighteenth-century European horizontal windmill
The first practical windmills werepanemone windmills, using sails that rotated in a horizontal plane, around a vertical axis. Made of six to 12 sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water.[15] A medieval account reports that windmill technology was used inPersia and the Middle East during the reign ofRashidun caliphUmar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644), based on the caliph's conversation with a Persian builder slave.[16] The authenticity of part of the anecdote involving the caliph Umar is questioned because it was recorded only in the 10th century.[17] ThePersian geographerEstakhri reported windmills being operated inKhorasan (Eastern Iran and Western Afghanistan) already in the 9th century.[18][19]Such windmills were in widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia and later spread to Europe, China, and India from there.[20] By the 11th century, the vertical-axle windmill had reached parts of Southern Europe, including theIberian Peninsula (viaAl-Andalus) and theAegean Sea (in theBalkans).[21] A similar type of horizontal windmill with rectangular blades, used for irrigation, can also be found in thirteenth-century China (during theJurchen Jin dynasty in the north), introduced by the travels ofYelü Chucai toTurkestan in 1219.[22]
Vertical-axle windmills were built, in small numbers, in Europe during the 18th and nineteenth centuries,[15] for exampleFowler's Mill atBattersea in London, and Hooper's Mill atMargate inKent. These early modern examples seem not to have been directly influenced by the vertical-axle windmills of the medieval period, but to have been independent inventions by 18th-century engineers.[23]
The horizontal-axis or vertical windmill (so called due to the plane of the movement of its sails) is a development of the 12th century, first used in northwestern Europe, in the triangle of northernFrance,eastern England andFlanders.[24]It is unclear whether the vertical windmill was influenced by the introduction of the horizontal windmill from Persia-Middle East to Southern Europe in the preceding century.[25][26]
The earliest certain reference to a windmill inNorthern Europe (assumed to have been of the vertical type) dates from 1185, in the former village of Weedley in Yorkshire which was located at the southern tip of theWold overlooking theHumber Estuary.[27] Several earlier, but less certainly dated, 12th-century European sources referring to windmills have also been found.[28]These earliest mills were used togrind cereals.[29]
The evidence at present is that the earliest type of European windmill was the post mill, so named because of the large upright post on which the mill's main structure (the "body" or "buck") is balanced. By mounting the body this way, the mill can rotate to face the wind direction; an essential requirement for windmills to operate economically in north-western Europe, where wind directions are variable. The body contains all the milling machinery. The first post mills were of the sunken type, where the post was buried in an earth mound to support it. Later, a wooden support was developed called thetrestle. This was often covered over or surrounded by a roundhouse to protect the trestle from the weather and to provide storage space. This type of windmill was the most common in Europe until the 19th century when more powerfultower andsmock mills replaced them.[30]
In a hollow-post mill, the post on which the body is mounted is hollowed out, to accommodate the drive shaft.[31]This makes it possible to drive machinery below or outside the body while still being able to rotate the body into the wind. Hollow-post mills driving scoop wheels were used in the Netherlands to drain wetlands since the early 15th century onwards.[32]
Windmill in theAzores islands, Portugal.Tower mills inConsuegra, Spain
By the end of the 13th century, the masonry tower mill, on which only the cap is rotated rather than the whole body of the mill, had been introduced. The spread of tower mills came with a growing economy that called for larger and more stable sources of power, though they were more expensive to build. In contrast to the post mill, only the cap of the tower mill needs to be turned into the wind, so the main structure can be made much taller, allowing the sails to be made longer, which enables them to provide useful work even in low winds. The cap can be turned into the wind either by winches or gearing inside the cap or from a winch on the tail pole outside the mill. A method of keeping the cap and sails into the wind automatically is by using afantail, a small windmill mounted at right angles to the sails, at the rear of the windmill. These are also fitted to tail poles of post mills and are common in Great Britain and English-speaking countries of the former British Empire, Denmark, and Germany but rare in other places. Around some parts of the Mediterranean Sea, tower mills with fixed caps were built because the wind's direction varied little most of the time.[citation needed]
The smock mill is a later development of the tower mill, where the masonry tower is replaced by a wooden framework, called the "smock", which is thatched, boarded, or covered by other materials, such asslate,sheet metal, ortar paper. The smock is commonly of octagonal plan, though there are examples with different numbers of sides.
Smock windmills were introduced by the Dutch in the 17th century to overcome the limitations of tower windmills, which were expensive to build and could not be erected on wet surfaces. The lower half of the smock windmill was made of brick, while the upper half was made of wood, with a sloping tower shape that added structural strength to the design. This made them lightweight and able to be erected on unstable ground.
The smock windmill design included asmall turbine in the back that helped the main mill to face the direction of the wind.[33]
Common sails consist of a lattice framework on which the sailcloth is spread. The miller can adjust the amount of cloth spread according to the wind and the power needed. In medieval mills, the sailcloth was wound in and out of a ladder-type arrangement of sails. Later mill sails had a lattice framework over which the sailcloth was spread, while in colder climates, the cloth was replaced by wooden slats, which were easier to handle in freezing conditions.[34] The jib sail is commonly found in Mediterranean countries and consists of a simple triangle of cloth wound round a spar.[35]
In all cases, the mill needs to be stopped to adjust the sails. Inventions in Great Britain in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to sails that automatically adjust to the wind speed without the need for the miller to intervene, culminating in patent sails invented byWilliam Cubitt in 1807. In these sails, the cloth is replaced by a mechanism of connected shutters.[citation needed]
In France, Pierre-Théophile Berton invented a system consisting of longitudinal wooden slats connected by a mechanism that lets the miller open them while the mill is turning. In the twentieth century, increased knowledge of aerodynamics from the development of the airplane led to further improvements in efficiency by German engineer Bilau and several Dutch millwrights.The majority of windmills have four sails. Multiple-sailed mills, with five, six, or eight sails, were built in Great Britain (especially in and around the counties ofLincolnshire andYorkshire), Germany, and less commonly elsewhere. Earlier multiple-sailed mills are found in Spain, Portugal, Greece, parts of Romania, Bulgaria, and Russia.[36] A mill with an even number of sails has the advantage of being able to run with a damaged sail by removing both the damaged sail and the one opposite, which does not unbalance the mill.
In the Netherlands, the stationary position of the sails, i.e. when the mill is not working, has long been used to give signals. If the blades are stopped in a "+" sign (3-6-9-12 o'clock), the windmill is open for business. When the blades are stopped in an "X" configuration, the windmill is closed or not functional. A slight tilt of the sails (top blade at 1 o'clock) signals joy, such as the birth of a healthy baby. A tilt of the blades to 11-2-5-8 o'clock signals mourning, or warning. It was used to signal the local region during Nazi operations inWorld War II, such as searches for Jews. Across the Netherlands, windmills were placed in mourning positions in honor of the Dutch victims of the 2014Malaysian Airlines Flight 17 shootdown.[37]
Gears inside a windmill convey power from the rotary motion of the sails to a mechanical device. The sails are carried on the horizontal windshaft.Windshafts can be wholly made of wood, wood with a cast iron pole end (where the sails are mounted), or entirely ofcast iron. The brake wheel is fitted onto the windshaft between the front and rear bearings. It has the brake around the outside of the rim and teeth in the side of the rim which drives the horizontal gearwheel called wallower on the top end of the vertical upright shaft. Ingrist mills, the great spur wheel, lower down the upright shaft, drives one or more stone nuts on the shafts driving eachmillstone. Post mills sometimes have a head and/or tail wheel driving the stone nuts directly, instead of the spur gear arrangement. Additional gear wheels drive a sack hoist or other machinery.The machinery differs if the windmill is used for other applications than milling grain. Adrainage mill uses another set of gear wheels on the bottom end of the upright shaft to drive a scoop wheel orArchimedes' screw.Sawmills uses a crankshaft to provide a reciprocating motion to the saws. Windmills have been used to power many other industrial processes, includingpapermills,threshing mills, and to process oil seeds, wool, paints, and stone products.[38]
An isometric drawing of the machinery of theBeebe Windmill
In the 14th century, windmills became popular in Europe; the total number of wind-powered mills is estimated to have been around 200,000 at the peak in 1850, which is close to half of the some 500,000water wheels.[34] Windmills were applied in regions where there was too little water, where rivers freeze in winter and in flat lands where the flow of the river was too slow to provide the required power.[34] With the coming of theIndustrial Revolution, the importance of wind and water as primary industrial energy sources declined, and they were eventually replaced by steam (insteam mills) andinternal combustion engines, although windmills continued to be built in large numbers until late in the nineteenth century. More recently, windmills have been preserved for their historic value, in some cases as static exhibits when the antique machinery is too fragile to be put in motion, and other cases as fully working mills.[39]
Of the 10,000 windmills in use in the Netherlands around 1850,[40] about 1,000 are still standing. Most of these are being run by volunteers, though some grist mills are still operating commercially. Many of the drainage mills have been appointed as a backup to the modern pumping stations. TheZaan district has been said to have been the first industrialized region of the world with around 600 operating wind-powered industries by the end of the eighteenth century.[40] Economic fluctuations and the industrial revolution had a much greater impact on these industries than on grain and drainage mills, so only very few are left.
Construction of mills spread to theCape Colony in the seventeenth century. The early tower mills did not survive the gales of theCape Peninsula, so in 1717 theHeeren XVII sent carpenters, masons, and materials to construct a durable mill. The mill, completed in 1718, became known as theOude Molen and was located between Pinelands Station and the Black River. Long since demolished, its name lives on as that of a Technical school inPinelands. By 1863, Cape Town had 11 mills stretching from Paarden Eiland toMowbray.[41]
^"Windmill". Merriam-webster.com. 31 August 2012. Retrieved15 August 2013."a mill or machine operated by the wind usually acting on oblique vanes or sails that radiate from a horizontal shaft, especially: (a) wind-driven water pump or electric generator, (b) the wind-driven wheel of a windmill".
^Glick, Thomas F., Steven Livesey, and Faith Wallis. Medieval science, technology, and medicine: an encyclopedia. Routledge, 2014, 519.
^Shepherd, William (2011).Electricity Generation Using Wind Power (1 ed.). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p. 4.ISBN978-981-4304-13-9.
^Needham, Joseph (1986).Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., p. 560.
^Hills, R L. Power from Wind: A History of Windmill Technology Cambridge University Press 1993
R. Gregory, The Industrial Windmill in Britain. Phillimore, 2005
Mishmastnehi, Moslem (2021). "Technological Heritage of Persian Windmills".Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies.62:103–119.doi:10.1080/05786967.2021.1960885.S2CID238712550.
Vowles, Hugh Pembroke: "An Enquiry into Origins of the Windmill",Journal of the Newcomen Society, Vol. 11 (1930–31)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
.jpg)
