Tidewater is a region in theAtlantic Plains of the United States located east of theAtlantic Seaboard fall line (the natural border where the tidewater meets with the Piedmont region) and north of theDeep South. The term "tidewater" can be applied to any region where water levels are affected by the tide. Still, culturally and historically, the Tidewater region refers most commonly to the low-lying plains of southeasternVirginia (known as thecoastal plain or Tidewater Virginia), easternMaryland, theEastern Shore, and theChesapeake Bay.^[1] It can also encompassDelaware, the remainder of theDelmarva Peninsula, and NortheasternNorth Carolina.

The cultural Tidewater region got its name from the effects of changing oceantides on localrivers,sounds, and shorelines.^[1] The area has a centuries-old cultural heritage that sets itself apart from the adjacent inland parts of the United States, especially concerning its distinctive dialects of English, which are gradually disappearing,^[2] along with its islands and its receding shoreline.^[3]

Most Native Americans in the Tidewater region wereAlgonkian-speaking tribes who lived from the fall line eastward to the Chesapeake Bay and south to theAlbemarle andPamlico Sounds. From north to south, they inhabited the area from thePotomac River in Maryland to theNeuse River in North Carolina. Two tribes, theAccomac and theAccohanoc, also Algonkian-speaking, lived on the Eastern Shore.^[4]John Smith's region map, which has been deemed quite accurate compared to modern maps, shows about 200 villages with king's house symbols indicating tribal capitals. The Algonkian tribes in the Tidewater region were occasionally at war between themselves and with tribes to the north and west, and they were enemies withSiouan tribes west of the fall line in the Piedmont region. To the south wereIroquoian-speaking tribes.^[5]

The natives were hunters, gatherers, and fishers and depended on corn (maize), beans, and squash,^[6] which they grew in the region's rich soils. By continuously growing corn, they were susceptible to crop failure.^[7] They fished and ate berries and nuts in the spring and summer, ate grown vegetables in the summer and fall, and hunted for deer, turkey, squirrel, rabbit, etc. in the winter. Deer was used for clothing and tools as well as food. Each tribe had a chief, Werowances if male and Werowansquas if female. Political power was inherited and passed down through the female line. ThePowhatans lived in villages along rivers and banks in houses called yehakins made from a tree framework covered in bark or marsh reed mats. Men hunted and fished while women farmed, made clothing, and cooked. Children learned these skills from adults and played. Tattoos of animals and nature were common, and clothes were made from deerskin and woven grasses. Necklaces and earrings made from shells and pearls showed wealth.^[6]

The Virginia Algonquians (also known as the "Southeastern Algonkian") were part of thePowhatan Confederacy which originated around theJames River and encompassed thePamunkey andMattaponi Rivers to the north. Eventually, the confederacy included more than 30 Algonquian tribes east of the fall line including thePumunkey,Nansemond, andChickahomony, the three largest tribes in Virginia, as well as theAccomac andAccohanoc on the southern tip of the Eastern Shore.^[5]

The original confederacy is estimated to have had around 1,750-1,850 members before expanding to have 8,000-9,000. The Eastern Shore had 400 members; the rest lived on the mainland with a slight majority living in theNorthern Neck and South of the James River. The more loyal and powerful tribes of the confederacy, like the Pumunkey, lived between the James andRappahannock Rivers. There are accounts of chiefs of tribes further away, like the Potomac and Accomac, who defied the authority ofPowhatan.^[5]

Powhatan, originally named Wahunsonacock,^[6] was the chief of the Powhatan Confederacy. He was also the father ofPocahontas.^[8] He grew his dominion by conquering many of the tribes that joined, including theChesapeake, Kecoughtan, and Piankatank tribes according to natives that interacted with theJamestown colonists. Powhatan's relative,Opechancanough (it's unknown if he is a brother, half-brother, or cousin),^[9] was the tribal chief of the Pumunkey before succeeding Powhatan as the chief of the confederacy after his death.^[5]

The Carolina Algonquians were the first natives to come in contact with English settlers at the failed colony onRoanoke Island.^[7] At the start of English settlement in the region in the early 17th century, there was a shift in tribal locations, as many natives moved west or further south into current North Carolina to avoid colonists. After the establishment of the first English settlement at Jamestown in 1607, Powhatan moved from Werowocomoco on theYork River westward to Orapaks on theChickahomony River. Many tribes moved south in the 1630s and 1650s after theIndian Massacres of 1622 (also called the Powhatan Uprising of 1622) and 1644.

Opechancanough led these uprisings against the colonists starting on March 22, 1622 in which tribes in the Powhatan Confederacy surprise attacked and killed or captured approximately 347 English, about a quarter of the colonists. Their tactic was to enter settlement homes friendly, as this was now normalized, before attacking. The Jamestown settlement was warned by a Christianized native the night before and escaped harm. These attacks rose tensions between the natives and the English and incited a ten-year longAnglo-Powhatan war. On the morning of the first uprising, the process resulting in Indian reservations began.^[9] Opechancanough led another uprising in 1644 which killed almost 500 colonists,^[10] but he was captured and killed in captivity. In 1675, fighting ensued between the English andSusquehannocks due to the English trying to push them out of the land in Virginia and Maryland.^[11] By the early 18th century, some natives adopted Christianity and English culture.^[7]

The first English colony,Roanoke Colony, was established on Roanoke Island in 1587 in the currentOuter Banks of North Carolina.^[12] The colony consisted of men, women, and children sent bySir Walter Raleigh, the leading Englishman in colonial establishments.^[13] The settlers explored the Pamlico and Albemarle sounds and rivers and documented new animal and plant species.^[7] Because of the infertile soil, the colonists resorted to taking food from neighboring natives which resulted in fighting.^[11] A month into the establishment,Governor John White left the island, promising to return in three month. However, he returned three year later in 1590 to find all the inhabitants and their houses gone^[12] with the letter "CRO" carved into a tree and the word "Croatoan" carved onto a post. Governor White speculated that they moved to the land occupied by the Croatoan tribe but couldn't search for them and returned to England.^[10]

In May of 1607, the first successful English colony was established on the James River in Jamestown, Virginia. When the 104 men arrived, they found fertile soils, meadows, tall trees, and an abundance of fish, oysters, and crabs, and set out in search of gold. They built a chapel from wood which burned down in 1608 and was rebuilt to be the largest building in the settlement. The church was whereJohn Rolfe and Pocahontas were wed.^[11]

Few of the colonists knew artisan skills necessary for survival. The colonists struggled withMalaria from the mosquitos that inhabited the swamps, other diseases liketyphoid fever anddysentery,^[10] a lack of fresh water, winter famines, and strained relationships with the natives that they encountered. Within the first month of settlement, the Powhatans had attacked the colonists' fort before the Chief sent messengers to ask for friendship. However, interaction between the two groups were often unstable as they both traded and fought.^[14] By the end of the first winter, only 38 of the original settlers had survived. In 1608, 200 more were sent to the colony.^[10] The colony struggled untiltobacco became its economic driver and cash crop.^[14]

The settlers continued to explore the Albemarle-Pamlico region and starting in 1653, they expanded their colony into this area. Most settlers who moved south to Carolina from Jamestown wereQuakers seeking religious freedom. The settlers here changed the ecosystem by digging ditches and canals which drained the swampland, cutting down forests, building river dams, and attempting to drain lakes. They overtook the natives who lived there and farmed on the land, adopting the planting of maize, planting their own rice, wheat, and tobacco, and raising livestock.^[7]

In 1634, the colony ofSt. Mary's was established near the Potomac River at the arrival of around 200 settlers. The colony was established to be a refuge forEnglish Catholics prosecuted byProtestants. However, most who came were Protestants,^[10] although there were also Catholics, Quakers, andPuritans. The religious diversity in the area merited the creation of the 1649 "Act Concerning Religion" that allowed free exercise of religion as long as the religion was a Christian denomination,^[11] although it did little to solve religious turmoil.

Before slavery,indentured servants were the predominant source of labor in Virginia and Maryland. English indentured servants exchanged four or seven years of free labor in return for passage to America and fifty acres of land after their release.^[10][11] Indentured servants in the 1700s tended to arrive from Ireland and came in families. Criminals from England were also sent in 1718.

Slavery was more appealing to planters because, unlike indentured servants, slaves were to work their whole lives and could not be freed and given parcels of land that could compete with owners. In 1619, the first Africans arrived at Jamestown by a Dutch ship. They had been baptized and could not be sold as slaves and instead were sold as servants. By 1649, 300 Africans, a mix of slaves, indentured servants, and free, were living in Virginia. Africans went south to the Albemarle region in 1653 with other English settlers.^[7] By the 1660s, most Africans were either servants for life or slaves. During the 18th century, slavery significantly increased in Virginia from 12,000 slaves in 1708 to 120,000 in 1756. Maryland and the Carolinas saw similar increases, with slaves outnumbering whites in South Carolina by 1708. The three types of slaves were skilled workers (carpenters, blacksmiths, tailors, etc.), house servants (cooks, maids, nurses), and field hands who worked in the tobacco fields.^[10]

In 1619, theVirginia Company of London authorized for every adult male in Virginia to elect a legislature called theHouse of Burgesses. In its first meeting, the House passed laws concerning Native American relations and conversion, agriculture, land and labor, religion, and morals. This was the first form of self-government that the colonists had.

Each colony also had its own governor, usually appointed or elected by the King of England, that served for a term of five years. The governor held essentially all power in the colony and could veto any acts passed by the House of Burgesses and was in charge of the colony's militia. The governor had a council of seven to twelve members that approved bills and served as the supreme court of the colony. Eventually, theHouse of Commons granted the assembly the power to makes their own rules, elect their own speaker, and control money.^[10]

Much of theAmerican Revolution's strategy and battles took place in the Tidewater region of Virginia and North Carolina.Lafayette planned to attackBenedict Arnold who had defected to the British inPortsmouth, Virginia. Troops also traveled through and fought on and around the James River, the Chesapeake Bay, the Richmond area,Norfolk, andWilliamsburg.^[15] During the 1775Battle of Great Bridge, the British, led by Lord Dunmore, tried to cross from the Albemarle region in North Carolina to Norfolk, Virginia where they were attacked and defeated by Patriots. Norfolk was later attacked and partially destroyed by Dunmore and his troops on New Year's Day in 1776. The Patriots were also responsible for the damage to Norfolk in attempt to deny it from the British. Because of the destruction of Norfolk, the largest military port between New York and Charleston,Lord Cornwallis decided to move his troops toYorktown.^[16]

One of the most significant roles that the Tidewater region played in the revolution was theSiege of Yorktown which ended the war. TheYorktown campaign, with the help of French allies, began inPetersburg and made its way through theVirginia Peninsula to Yorktown where Cornwallis was forced to surrender 8,000 British forces.^[15][16]

TheVirginia Peninsula located between the James and York rivers was a significant location throughout theCivil War.Fort Monroe in Hampton, Virginia was the only fort controlled by Union forces in the South. It was a strategic location for controlling the Chesapeake Bay and ports like Newport News Point,Hampton, and Norfolk, serving as a prime location for Union military operations. It also became a haven for slaves looking to escape to Union territory. Another installation in the area wasGosport Naval Yard which Confederate forces took control of in 1861.^[17][18]

Many battles were fought in the Tidewater region including theBattle of Big Bethel in York County and Hampton, the Blockade of the Chesapeake Bay and Potomac River, multiple in North Carolina (such as Roanoke Island, New Bern, and Fort Macon), and the Peninsula Campaign which included theSiege of Yorktown,Battle of Hampton Roads andBattle of Williamsburg.^[19]

The land in the Tidewater region is generally flat and low, with large expanses near the tidal shorelines composed oftidal marsh andswamp. Much of the area is covered withpocosin and the higher areas are used for agricultural farmlands.

The underlying structure of the region is a solid rock foundation that formed 250-500 million years ago and is covered with eroded clay, sand, and gravel carried eastward by rivers.^[20] The salinity of the water in the region gradually changes from freshwater inland tobrackish and saltwater closer to the coast.^[7]

During the last ice age (25,000 years ago), although the region was not glaciated, the Atlantic sea level was significantly lower than today. This resulted in more land on the coasts, extending fifty more miles eastward than today.^[20] Hence, many of the current North Carolina sounds and the Chesapeake Bay had not formed yet. Rather, what are now rivers like thePamlico, James, andSusquehanna that flow into the Chesapeake Bay and the North Carolina sounds previously flowed directly into the Atlantic Ocean.^[7]

The Tidewater region developed when sea levels rose after ice sheets melted at the end of the last ice age, resulting in the flooding of river valleys in the coastal plain and the Chesapeake lowland which created the Chesapeake Bay.^[20] Such flooded river valleys now make up the Tidewater region as tides continue to affect water levels far inland, in some cases all the way west to the fall line. The region stretches into the Atlantic Ocean at the point where warm water from theGulf Stream starts to deflect away from the coast.^[7]

Geographically, in North Carolina and Virginia the Tidewater area is the land between the fall line and the Atlantic Ocean. In Maryland, the Tidewater area is the flooded river areas below the fall line. Southern Maryland,^[21] the Eastern Shore, and Delaware round out the northern part of the region on the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays. In the case of Virginia, the Tidewater region includesHampton Roads, the rest of the Virginia Peninsula, theMiddle Peninsula, theNorthern Neck, and the Eastern Shore.

The tidewater region has a warm,subtropical climate with mild winters and hot, humid summers, allowing for a long growing season. The Chesapeake Bay affects the climate on the Eastern Shore and inland from its cool winds during the warm months. There is a moderate amount of rainfall throughout the year at about 44 inches in coastal Maryland and slightly more down towards Tidewater Virginia.^[23]

The driving impact of climate change in the Tidewater region is the rise in Atlantic sea levels due to melting ice sheets/glaciers and rising water temperatures. According to theChesapeake Climate Action Network, the Atlantic is rising three to four times the pace of the global average and especially fast on Virginia's coast, which has one of the highest rates in the country.^[24][25] Norfolk, Virginia has been identified as the most vulnerable city to rising sea levels on the Atlantic Coast, and it is possible that by 2100, the Tidewater region could have up to an 8-foot change in high tides.^[24]

The region has seen growing temperatures and more intense and frequent storms leading to recurrent flooding. Over the last four decades, Virginia has had dozens oftropical cyclones, severe storms, and winter storms that each caused more than a billion dollars in damage. Rising sea levels and storms also threaten public health by infiltrating drinking water with saltwater.^[25]

The health of the Chesapeake Bay is also affected by warming water temperatures which increase the amount ofVibrio bacteria and contaminate fish and shellfish. Seagrass and vegetation in the bay that provide habitats for organisms, filter nutrients, and producedissolved oxygen is also affected.^[25]

Tidewater is host to plants commonly found in the South Atlantic pine forests and lower southeast coastal areas. The proximity of the Gulf Stream to the region and the presence of fresh and saltwater allows for a diverse ecosystem that supports an abundance of species.^[7]

The region has large white oak, live oak, red cedars, cypress, and longleaf pine trees. In theGreat Dismal Swamp of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina is a 3,500-year-old cypress-gum forest with cypress, black gum, tupelo gum, and other wetland trees like Atlantic white cedar, red maple, and loblolly pine. Before the cypress gum forest, the swamp was first a pine-spruce forest replaced by a beech-hemlock-birch forest and then an oak-hickory forest. Throughout the Tidewater region aresecondary forests of different types of oak and hardwood species such as beech and yellow poplars as well as pines, loblolly being the most common. Thecommon reed grows rapidly in the wetlands of the region and is considered invasive.^[26]

The most common fish in the region are minnows, shiners, carp, sunfish, largemouth bass, and catfish. Some species are resident while others migrate. Aquatic turtles and water snakes are abundant along with frogs and toads. There are fewer amphibians in the area because of the abundance of fish that eat their eggs.^[27] TheAmerican alligator has inhabited the region, specifically parts of North Carolina since prehistory. The largest amounts of alligators in the region today are found on the eastern side of the Alligator River by the Albemarle Sound.^[7] Many of the birds in the region are referred to aswaterfowl, which migrate to the region in the winter, such as geese, swans, and ducks.^[7] The mallard and wood duck breed in the region most commonly. Raptors like osprey, bald eagles, and northern harriers feed on smaller birds and fish. There is a high abundance of bird species because of a variety of microhabitats within the region. For example, dead common reed and cattail plants offer shelter to birds like marsh wren, sparrows, and blackbirds. Songbirds and woodpeckers forage and nest in shrubs and trees in higher elevations, and raptors perch and nest in tall dead trees.^[27] Mammals include the white-tailed deer, skunks, black bears, foxes, rabbits, raccoons, star-nosed moles, beavers, and river otters.^[27][7]

The largest herds of wild horned cattle once lived around theAlbemarle peninsula and the Great Dismal Swamp. Bison inhabited the woodlands of Virginia and North Carolina, and a peccary species (similar to hogs) lived in coastal North Carolina. An unnamed canine species also lived in the Albemarle swamps but wereextirpated by early settlers because they hunted colonial livestock. Extinct species that once inhabited the region include the Carolina parakeet, passenger pigeon, ivory-billed woodpecker, and mammoth.^[7]

According to the2020 United States Census, the total population of the Virginia Beach-Chesapeake-Norfolk, VA-NC Metro Area (otherwise known as Hampton Roads, a large portion of the region) is 1,799,674.^[28] According to the 2023American Community Survey (ACS), 21.9% are under 18 years old, 16.7% are over 65, and the median age is 37.7. The sex ratio is 96.1 males per 100 females.^[29]

The Middle Peninsula, Northern Neck & Accomack-Northampton Planning District Commissions PUMA in Virginia had a total population of 172,419 according to the 2023 ACS. Of this, 17.6% are under 18, 28.5% are over 65, and median age is 50.3. Females make up 51.5% of the population and males the other 48.5%.^[30]

An estimated 710,613 total households live in Hampton Roads with the average household size being 2.44. Of these, 73% are 1-unit structures, 24.8% are 2-or-more unit structures, and 2.1% are mobile homes or other unit types.^[31] More than a quarter of households have children under 18. There are an estimated 458,380 total families with an average size of 3.02. Of the population 15 years and over, 34.5% never married, 47.6% are now married (except separated), 10.7% are divorced, and 5.3% are widowed.^[32]

The Middle Peninsula, Northern Neck & Accomack-Northampton area has a total of 75,279 households with an average of 2.2 persons her household. Single-unit homes make up 84% of housing units, 4.9% are multi-unit homes, and 11.1% are mobile homes. Of the population 15 years and over, 55.5% are married and 44.5% are single.^[30]

In Hampton Roads, 11.5% of the population is belowpoverty level^[33] and the median income per household is $79,325.^[34] Two earners are present in 41.3% of families, while 34% have only one earner.^[35] Of the population 25 years and over, 93% are high school graduates or higher and 36.1% have a bachelor's degree or higher.^[36]

The Middle Peninsula, Northern Neck & Accomack-Northampton area has a median household income of $65,940, and 10.4% of the population is below the poverty line. Of the population 25 years and over, 11.4% have no degree, 35.4% graduated high school, 16% have a bachelor's degree, and 10% have a post-grad degree.^[30]

According to the ACS, the Hampton Roads area is 61.9% White, 33.6% Black or African American, 2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 6.2% Asian, 0.6% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 8.1% Hispanic or Latino (of any race), and 6.9% some other race.^[37]

The Middle Peninsula, Northern Neck & Accomack-Northampton area is 68.3% White, 20.7% Black, 0.7% Asian, 5.7% Hispanic, 0.1% Native, 0% Islander, and 0.6% other.^[30]

The economy in the Tidewater region, especially in Virginia, relies most heavily on national defense, ports, and hospitality and tourism.^[38]

The Tidewater region is home to numerous military installations, includingNaval Station Norfolk (the world's largest naval base),Naval Air Station Oceana,Joint Base Langley-Eustis, and Newport News Shipyard in Virginia. Maryland hostsAberdeen Proving Ground and several Naval Support Activity installations, and North Carolina housesMarine Corps Air Station Cherry Point.^[39] Norfolk, Virginia holds the only two NATO commands in North America,Allied Command Transformation andJoint Force Command Norfolk.^[40]

In the fiscal year of 2023, Virginia was the second-largest recipient ofdefense spending, receiving $68.5 billion, and Maryland was fifth-largest with $27.8 billion.^[41] In Hampton Roads specifically, directDepartment of Defense spending was estimated to be more than $25 billion in 2022. Hampton Roads also has a significant military veteran and retiree population, and more than 7% of businesses are veteran owned.^[38]

The Tidewater region, specifically Virginia, dominates the U.S.shipbuilding industry with the most shipbuilding jobs in the nation. Newport News Shipbuilding is the largest industrial employer in Virginia.^[42] In 2014, Virginia had 63,650 shipyard jobs, the most out of every state next to California which had 37,140. Virginia's maritime industry is responsible for over $5.5 billion of the state's economy annually. Domestic cargo transported via ships originating in Virginia as well as being shipped to Virginia totaled more than $9 million and $6 million tons, respectively. The top state to send maritime cargo to and receive it from Virginia is Maryland.^[43] Between 2010 and 2019, cargo traffic in Hampton Roads had an increase of 43.2%.^[38]

Because of the region's landscape of beaches and parkways and its historical background, tourism is one of its major economic sectors. In Virginia, visitors travel to historic Jamestown,Colonial Williamsburg, and the shores ofVirginia Beach. In 2022, tourism to theColonial National Historic Park generated more than $453 million in economic benefits through additional hotel bookings, food services, and job creation.^[44] Similarly, tourism to the Outer Banks accounts for billions in spending annually.^[45][44]

The Tidewater region has remained politically competitive since the 2010s, even as much of the rest of the Southern United States has aligned towards theRepublican Party. The heavilyDemocraticNortheast megalopolis includes Maryland, Delaware, and Northern Virginia. TheEastern Shore of Maryland is strongly Republican. As of 2024, Democrats hold the governorships of Delaware, Maryland, and North Carolina, while Republicans hold the Virginia governorship.

A distinctivenon-rhoticaccent of the Old South was spoken in the Tidewater coastal region of Virginia. Commonly known as aTidewater accent, it is best associated with White upper-class speakers of the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the actual islands of the Chesapeake themselves, aseparate rhotic accent survives among the locals.^[2][3]

• Hampton Roads
• Inner Banks
• Southern Maryland
• Eastern Shore (Maryland)
• Eastern Shore (Virginia)

• Reich, Jerome (2016).Colonial America.doi:10.4324/9781315510491.ISBN 978-1-315-51048-4.

• Woodard, Colin (2012).American Nations: A History of the Eleven Rival Regional Cultures of North America. Penguin.ISBN 978-0-14-312202-9.

36°53′N76°28′W / 36.883°N 76.467°W /36.883; -76.467