TheUpper Paleolithic (orUpper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of thePaleolithic or OldStone Age. Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago (the beginning of theHolocene), according to some theories coinciding with the appearance ofbehavioral modernity in early modern humans. It is followed by theMesolithic.
![]() Löwenmensch, a prehistoric ivorysculpture discovered inHohlenstein-Stadel,c. 40,000–35,000 years old | |
Period | Stone Age |
---|---|
Dates | 50,000 to 12,000 BP |
Preceded by | Middle Paleolithic |
Followed by | Mesolithic |

Anatomically modern humans (i.e.Homo sapiens) are believed to have emerged inAfrica around 300,000 years ago. It has been argued by some that their ways of life changed relatively little from that ofarchaic humans of theMiddle Paleolithic,[1] until about 50,000 years ago, when there was a marked increase in the diversity ofartefacts found associated with modern human remains. This period coincides with the most common date assigned toexpansion of modern humans from Africa throughout Asia and Eurasia, which may have contributed to theextinction of the Neanderthals.
The Upper Paleolithic has the earliest known evidence of organizedsettlements, in the form of campsites, some with storage pits.Artistic work blossomed, with cave painting,petroglyphs, carvings and engravings on bone or ivory. The first evidence of human fishing is also found from a 125,000 years old artefacts inBuya,Eritrea and in other places such asBlombos cave inSouth Africa. More complexsocial groupings emerged, supported by more varied and reliable food sources and specializedtool types. This probably contributed to increasing group identification orethnicity.[2]
Thepeopling of Australia most likely took place before c. 60ka.Europe was peopled after c. 45 ka. Anatomically modern humans are known to have expanded northward intoSiberia as far as the58th parallel by about 45 ka (Ust'-Ishim man).The Upper Paleolithic is divided by theLast Glacial Maximum (LGM), from about 25 to 15 ka. Thepeopling of the Americas occurred during this time, with East and Central Asia populations reaching theBering land bridge after about 35 ka, and expanding into the Americas by about 15 ka.In Western Eurasia, the Paleolithic eases into the so-calledEpipaleolithic orMesolithic from the end of the LGM, beginning 15 ka. TheHolocene glacial retreat begins 11.7 ka (10th millennium BC), falling well into the Old World Epipaleolithic, and marking the beginning of the earliest forms offarming in theFertile Crescent.
Lifestyle and technology
editBothHomo erectus andNeanderthals used the same crude stone tools. ArchaeologistRichard G. Klein, who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools, describes the stone tool kit of archaichominids as impossible to categorize. He argues that almost everywhere, whetherAsia, Africa orEurope, before 50,000 years ago all the stone tools are much alike and unsophisticated.
Firstly among the artefacts of Africa, archeologists found they could differentiate and classify those of less than 50,000 years into many different categories, such as projectile points, engraving tools, knife blades, and drilling and piercing tools. These new stone-tool types have been described as being distinctly differentiated from each other; each tool had a specific purpose. The early modern humans who expanded into Europe, commonly referred to as theCro-Magnons, left many sophisticated stone tools, carved and engraved pieces on bone,ivory andantler,cave paintings andVenus figurines.[3][4][5]
The Neanderthals continued to useMousterian stone tool technology and possiblyChâtelperronian technology. Thesetools disappeared from the archeological record at around the same time the Neanderthals themselves disappeared from the fossil record, about 40,000 cal BP.[6]
Settlements were often located in narrow valley bottoms, possibly associated with hunting of passingherds of animals. Some of them may have been occupied year round, though more commonly they appear to have been used seasonally; people moved between the sites to exploit different food sources at different times of the year. Hunting was important, andcaribou/wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entireanthropological literature on hunting".[7]
Technological advances included significant developments inflint tool manufacturing, withindustries based on fineblades rather than simpler and shorterflakes.Burins andracloirs were used to work bone, antler andhides. Advanceddarts andharpoons also appear in this period, along with thefish hook, theoil lamp,rope, and theeyed needle. Fishing ofpelagic fish species and navigating the open ocean is evidenced by sites fromTimor andBuka (Solomon Islands).[8]
The changes in human behavior have been attributed to changes in climate, encompassing a number of globaltemperature drops. These led to a worsening of the already bitter cold of thelast glacial period (popularly but incorrectly called the lastice age). Such changes may have reduced the supply of usabletimber and forced people to look at other materials. In addition, flint becomes brittle at low temperatures and may not have functioned as a tool.
Notational signs
editSome notational signs, used next to images of animals, may have appeared as early as theUpper Palaeolithic in Europe circa 35,000 BCE, and may be the earliestproto-writing: several symbols were used in combination as a way to convey seasonal behavioural information about hunted animals.[9] Lines (|) and dots (•) were apparently used interchangeably to denote lunar months, while the (Y) sign apparently signified "To give birth". These characters were seemingly combined to convey the breeding period of hunted animals.[9]
Changes in climate and geography
editThe climate of the period in Europe saw dramatic changes, and included theLast Glacial Maximum, the coldest phase of thelast glacial period, which lasted from about 26.5 to 19 kya, being coldest at the end, before relatively rapid warming (all dates vary somewhat for different areas, and in different studies). During the Maximum, most of Northern Europe was covered by anice-sheet, forcing human populations into the areas known asLast Glacial Maximum refugia, including modern Italy and theBalkans, parts of theIberian Peninsula and areas around theBlack Sea.
This period saw cultures such as theSolutrean in France and Spain. Human life may have continued on top of the ice sheet, but we know next to nothing about it, and very little about the human life that preceded the European glaciers. In the early part of the period, up to about 30 kya, theMousterian Pluvial made northern Africa, including theSahara, well-watered and with lower temperatures than today; after the end of the Pluvial the Sahara became arid.
The Last Glacial Maximum was followed by theAllerød oscillation, a warm and moist globalinterstadial that occurred around 13.5 to 13.8 kya. Then there was a very rapid onset, perhaps within as little as a decade, of the cold and dryYounger Dryas climate period, givingsub-arctic conditions to much of northern Europe. ThePreboreal rise in temperatures also began sharply around 10.3 kya, and by its end around 9.0 kya had brought temperatures nearly to present day levels, although the climate was wetter.[citation needed]This period saw the Upper Paleolithic give way to the start of the followingMesolithic cultural period.
As the glaciers receded sea levels rose; theEnglish Channel,Irish Sea andNorth Sea were land at this time, and the Black Sea a fresh-water lake. In particular the Atlantic coastline was initially far out to sea in modern terms in most areas, though the Mediterranean coastline has retreated far less, except in the north of theAdriatic and theAegean. The rise in sea levels continued until at least 7.5 kya (5500 BC), so evidence of human activity along Europe's coasts in the Upper Paleolithic is mostly lost, though some traces have been recovered by fishing boats andmarine archaeology, especially fromDoggerland, the lost area beneath the North Sea.[citation needed]
Timeline
edit50,000–40,000 BP
edit50,000 BP
edit- Numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found ingravel sediments inCastlereagh, Sydney, Australia. At first when these results were new they were controversial; more recently dating of the same strata has revised and corroborated these dates.[11][12]
- Start of theMousterian Pluvial in North Africa.
- Occupants of theFa-Hien Lena cave,Sri Lanka had developedbow and arrow technology 48,000 BP (though the earliest known bow and arrow technology dates to about 65,000 BP fromSibudu Cave, South Africa[13][14][15][16]).
48,000 BP
editThe first direct evidence forNeanderthals huntingcave lions. This is based on a cave lion skeleton found inSeigsdorf, Germany which has hunting lesions.[17]
45,000–43,000 BP
edit- Earliest evidence of modern humans found in Europe, in Southern Italy.[18] These are indirectly dated.[10]: 6
- Earliest mathematical artifact, the notchedLebombo bone, a possible tally stick or lunar calendar, dated to 44,000–43,000 BP inEswatini (Swaziland), southern Africa.[19]
- Oldest-known mining in archaeological record, theNgwenya Mine in Swaziland, at about 43,000 years ago, where humans minedhematite to make the red pigmentochre.[20][21]
- Earliest directly dated figurativecave art of mankind atLeang Bulu' Sipong inSulawesi,Indonesia.[22]
43,000–41,000 BP
edit- Microlithic artefacts have been excavated fromKana,West Bengal, India.
- Ornaments and skeletal remains of modern humans, atKsar Akil inLebanon. These are directly dated.[10]: 6
- Denisova hominins live in theAltai Mountains (Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan).
40,000–30,000 BP
edit40,000–35,000 BP
edit- First human inhabitants inPerth, Australia, as evidenced by archaeological findings on the Upper Swan River.[23]
- During this time period,Melbourne, Australia was occupied byhunter-gatherers.[24][25]
- Early cultural centre in theSwabian Alps, oldest depiction of a human being (Venus of Hohle Fels), beginning of theAurignacian.
- Löwenmensch figure created inHohlenstein-Stadel, one of the earliest figurative art. It is now in Ulmer Museum,Ulm, Germany.
- The firstflutes appear in Germany.
- Notational signs in caves, apparently conveyingcalendaric meaning about the behaviour of animal species drawn next to them, arethe first known (proto-)writing in history(seeabove).[26][9]
- Most of the giant vertebrates andmegafauna in Australia became extinct.
- Fishing of pelagic fish species atJerimalai shelter, Timor.
Venus of Dolní Věstonice, the oldest surviving ceramic figurine in the world (29,000 – 25,000 BC) - Examples ofcave art in Spain are dated from around 40,000 BP, making them the oldest examples of cave art yet discovered in Europe (see:Caves of Nerja). Scientists theorise that the paintings may have been made byNeanderthals, rather than by modern humans.[27][28]
- Wall painting with horses, rhinoceroses and aurochs is made atChauvet Cave,Vallon-Pont-d'Arc, Ardéche gorge, France. Discovered in December 1994.
- Evidence for continued Neanderthal presence in the Iberian Peninsula at 37,000 years ago was published in 2017.[29]
- Archaeological studies support human presence in theChek Lap Kok area (nowHong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago.[30]
- Zar, Yataghyeri,Damjili andTaghlar caves inAzerbaijan.
- First evidence of people inhabitingJapan.[31]
35,000-30,000 BP
edit- Kostenki XVII, a layer of theKostenki (Kostyonki) site, on the middleDon River, was occupied by the early upper paleolithicSpitsyn culture.
- TheRed Lady of Paviland (really a young man) lived around 33,600 years ago.[32]
30,000 BP
edit- Firstground stone tools appear in Japan.[33]
- End of theMousterian Pluvial in North Africa.
- The area ofSydney was occupied byAboriginal Australians (specifically, theEora andDharug people) during this time period, as evidenced byradiocarbon dating.[34] In an archaeological dig inParramatta,Western Sydney, it was found that the Aboriginals usedcharcoal, stone tools and possible ancient campfires.[35]
- First human settlement inAlice Springs,Northern Territory, Australia.[36]
- Kilu Cave atBuka in theSolomons is evidence for the first human settlement of anoceanic island and for navigating the open ocean.
30,000–20,000 BP
edit29,000–25,000 BP
edit- Eruption of theCiomad volcano, the last volcanic eruption in theCarpathians.
- Venus of Dolní Věstonice (Czech Republic). It is the oldest known ceramic in the world.
- Venus of Willendorf, Austria, created. It is now at theNatural History Museum, Vienna.
- Human settlement inBeijing, China dates from about 27,000 to 10,000 years ago.[37]
- Paintings of spotted horses,Pech Merle cave,Dordogne, date to c.25,000 years ago[38]
24,000 BP
edit- Start of the secondMousterian Pluvial in North Africa.
23,000 BP
edit- Venus of Petřkovice is created at Petřkovice inOstrava, Czech Republic. It is now in Archeological Institute,Brno.
22,000 BP
edit- Last Glacial Maximum:Venus of Brassempouy, Grotte du Pape,Brassempouy,Landes, France, created. It is now at Musée des Antiquités Nationales,Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
21,000 BP
edit- Artifacts suggests early human activity occurred at some point inCanberra, Australia.[39] Archaeological evidence of settlement in the region includes inhabitedrock shelters,rock art, burial places, camps and quarry sites, and stone tools and arrangements.[40]
- End of the secondMousterian Pluvial in North Africa.
20,000–10,000 BP
edit- Last Glacial Maximum. Meansea levels are believed to be 110 to 120 metres (360 to 390 ft)lower than present,[41] with the direct implication that many coastal and lower riverine valley archaeological sites of interest are today under water.
18,000 BP
edit- Ibex-headedspear-thrower, fromMas-d'Azil cave, now at the Musée de la Préhistoire in the village ofLe Mas-d'Azil.
- Mammoth-bone village inMezhyrich,Ukraine
17,000 BP
edit- Spotted human hands are painted atPech Merle cave,Dordogne, France. Discovered in December 1994.
- Oldest Dryasstadial.
- Hall of Bulls atLascaux in France is painted. Discovered in 1940. Closed to the public in 1963.
- Bird-Headed man with bison and Rhinoceros,Lascaux, is painted.
- Lamp with ibex design, from La Mouthe cave,Dordogne, France, is made. It is now at Musée des Antiquités Nationales,Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
- Paintings inCosquer Cave are made, where the cave mouth is now under water at Cap Margiou, France.
15,000 BP
edit- Bølling interstadial.
- Bison, Le Tuc d'Audoubert,Ariège, France.
- Paleo-Indians move across North America, then southward through Central America.
- Pregnant woman and deer (?), from Laugerie-Basse, France was made. It is now at Musée des Antiquités Nationales,St.-Germain-en-Laye.
14,000 BP
- Older Dryasstadial,Allerød interstadial.
- Paleo-Indians searched for big game near what is now theHovenweep National Monument.
- Bison, on the ceiling of a cave atAltamira, Spain, is painted. Discovered in 1879. Accepted as authentic in 1902.[clarification needed]
- Younger Dryas stadial.
- Beginning of theHolocene extinction.
12,000 BP
edit11,000 BP
edit- First evidence of human settlement inArgentina.
- TheArlington Springs Man dies on the island of Santa Rosa, off the coast of California, United States.
- Human remains deposited in caves which are now located off the coast of Yucatán, Mexico.[42]
- Creswellian culture settlement onHengistbury Head, England, dates from around this year.
10,000 BP
edit- Evidence of a massacre nearLake Turkana,Kenya indicatesupper paleolithic warfare.[43]
Cultures
editThe Upper Paleolithic in theFranco-Cantabrian region:
- TheChâtelperronian culture was located around central and south western France, and northern Spain. It appears to be derived from theMousterian culture, and represents the period of overlap betweenNeanderthals andHomo sapiens. This culture lasted from approximately 45,000 BP to 40,000 BP.[6]
- TheAurignacian culture was located in Europe and south west Asia, and flourished between 43,000 and 26,000 BP. It may have been contemporary with thePérigordian (a contested grouping of the earlier Châtelperronian and later Gravettian cultures).
- TheGravettian culture was located across Europe. Gravettian sites generally date between 33,000 and 20,000 BP.
- TheSolutrean culture was located in eastern France, Spain, and England. Solutrean artifacts have been dated c. 22,000 to 17,000 BP.
- TheMagdalenian culture left evidence from Portugal to Poland during the period from 17,000 to 12,000 BP.
- Central and east Europe:
- 33,000 BP,Gravettian culture in southern Ukraine[44]
- 30,000 BP,Szeletian culture
- 22,000 BP,Pavlovian,Aurignacian cultures
- 13,000 BP,Ahrensburg culture (Western Germany, Netherlands, England)
- 12,000 BP,Epigravettian
- North and west Africa, and Sahara:
- 32,000 BP,Aterian culture (Algeria, Libya)
- 12,000 BP,Ibero-Maurusian (a.k.a. Oranian, Ouchtatian), and Sebilian cultures
- 10,000 BP,Capsian culture (Tunisia, Algeria)
- Central, south, and east Africa:
- 50,000 BP,Fauresmith culture
- 30,000 BP,Stillbayan culture
- 12,000 BP,Lupembian culture
- 11,000 BP,Magosian culture (Zambia, Tanzania)
- 9,000 BP,Wiltonian culture
- West Asia (including Middle East):
- 50,000 BP,Jabroudian culture (Levant)
- 40,000 BP,Amoudian culture
- 30,000 BP,Emireh culture
- 20,000 BP,Aurignacian culture
- 12,000 BP,Kebarian, Athlitian cultures
- South, central and northern Asia:
- 30,000 BP,Angara culture
- 11,000 BP,Khandivili culture
- East and southeast Asia:
- 30,000 BP,Sen-Doki culture
- 16,000 BP,Jōmon period starts inAncient Japan
- 12,000 BP,pre-Jōmon ceramic culture (Japan)
- 10,000 BP,Hoabinhian culture (Northern Vietnam)
- 9,000 BP,Jōmon culture (Japan)
- Oceania:
- 40,000 BP,Whadjuk andNoongar culture (Perth, Australia)[45]
- 35,000 BP,Wurundjeri,Boonwurrung andWathaurong culture (Melbourne, Australia)[46]
- 30,000 BP,Eora andDarug[47] culture (Sydney, Australia)[48]
- 30,000 BP,Arrernte culture (Alice Springs,Central Australia)[49]
See also
edit- Last Glacial Maximum
- Mesolithic
- Neolithic
- Neolithic Europe
- Behavioral modernity
- Cro-Magnon 1
- Aurignacian
- Epigravettian
- Sungir
- Cultural universal
- Quaternary extinction event
- Early human migrations
- Dean R. Snow – A leading archeologist who has conducted extensive Paleolithic research.
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- ^M. Mirazón Lahr et al.,"Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya",Nature 529, 394–398 (21 January 2016),doi:10.1038/nature16477."Here we report on a case of inter-group violence towards a group of hunter-gatherers from Nataruk, west of Lake Turkana ... Ten of the twelve articulated skeletons found at Nataruk show evidence of having died violently at the edge of a lagoon, into which some of the bodies fell. The remains ... offer a rare glimpse into the life and death of past foraging people, and evidence that warfare was part of the repertoire of inter-group relations among prehistoric hunter-gatherers.""Evidence of a prehistoric massacre extends the history of warfare". University of Cambridge. 20 January 2016. Retrieved20 March 2017..For early depiction of interpersonal violence in rock art see:Taçon, Paul;Chippindale, Christopher (October 1994). "Australia's Ancient Warriors: Changing Depictions of Fighting in the Rock Art of Arnhem Land, N.T.".Cambridge Archaeological Journal.4 (2):211–48.doi:10.1017/S0959774300001086.S2CID 162983574..
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External links
edit- The Upper Paleolithic Revolution.Archived 13 November 2009 at theWayback Machine.
- Picture Gallery of the Paleolithic (reconstructional palaeoethnology) – Libor Balák at the Czech Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Archaeology in Brno, The Center for Paleolithic and Paleoethnological Research.