TheUmbri were an ancient people, considered anItalic people, attested during theIron Age in inner central Italy, approximately between the middleTiber river and thecentral Apennines.[1][2] A region calledUmbria still exists and is now occupied by Italian speakers. It is somewhat smaller than theancient Umbria. Most ancient Umbrian cities were settled in the 9th-4th centuries BCE on easily defensible hilltops.Umbria was bordered by theTiber and Nar rivers and included the Apennine slopes on the Adriatic. The ancientUmbrian language belongs to theOsco-Umbrian branch of theItalic languages, anIndo-European subfamily that also includes theLatino-Faliscan languages.
Herodotus, writing in the 5th-century BCE, provides the earliest literary mention of the Umbrian people, stating that they inhabited the region prior to the supposed migration of theTyrrhenians fromLydia and into Italy.[3][4] However, modern scholars agree that Herodotus' account is not based on real events.[5] Moreover, there is no archeological evidence for a migration of the Lydians into Etruria.[6] Ancient Roman writers thought the Umbri to be ofGaulish origin;[7]Cornelius Bocchus wrote that they were descended from an ancient Gaulish tribe.[8]Livy suggested that theInsubres, another Gaulish tribe, might be connected; their Celtic nameIsombres could possibly mean "Lower Umbrians," or inhabitants of the country below Umbria.[9] Similarly RomanhistorianCato the Elder, in his masterpieceOrigines, defines the Gauls as "the progenitors of the Umbri".[10]Plutarch wrote that the name might be a different way of writing the name of a northern European tribe, theAmbrones, and that both ethnonyms were cognate with "King of theBoii".[11] The presence of the same Ambrones among theCelto-Ligurian populations of Northern Italy, seems to strengthen the connection between the Umbri and the Celts of thePo Valley.[11][12]
Pliny the Elder wrote concerning the folk-etymology of the name:
The Umbrian people are thought the oldest in Italy; they are believed to have been called Ombrii (here, "the people of the thunderstorm," after ὅμβρος, "thunderstorm") by the Greeks because they survived thedeluge (literally "the inundation of the lands by thunderstorms,imbribus). The Etruscans vanquished 300 Umbrian cities.[2]
Roman and Greek historians alike agreed that the ancient Umbri once occupied a very large area of central and northern Italy, which stretched from theApennine Mountains toRavenna,Mantua,Ancona,Ariminium and theTyrrhenian coast north of theFiora River, before the expansion of the Etruscans andGauls confined them toSabina and the Apennine valleys.[13][14][15][16] According to ancient Greek historians, the Sabellian people, namely theSabines and theSamnites, and the tribes which sprung from them, as theMarsi,Marrucini,Peligni,Picentes,Hirpini, and others, were originally an Umbrian people.[17][18][19] Their expansion was in a southward direction, according to the rite ofVer Sacrum.[20]
The Umbrians are associated with theculture of Terni, protohistoric facies of southern Umbria, dated between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (10th century BC - 7th century BC). Although archaeological evidence is still limited and scattered, it remains difficult to completely understand how the Umbrian tribes developed their economy, culture, and social identity. This is especially true when compared to the more advanced Tyrrhenian and Adriatic regions. The lack of solid information is particularly clear for the earliest period, covering the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age (1300 to 1000 BC).[21] With the start of the Iron Age, the historical settlements of the Umbrians were continuously occupied almost without interruption through to the Roman period and beyond. These settlements include the modern towns of Terni, Colfiorito, Spoleto, Todi, Gubbio, Spello, Amelia, Matelica, and Pitino.[22]
The area near Terni, called Interamna Nahars in ancient times, is very important for learning about ancient Umbria. Archaeologists found many signs of large settlements with early town features from the beginning of the Iron Age. Close by, Maratta Bassa has remains of buildings from the 6th century BC with roofs made of flat and curved tiles. A Latin inscription says the city was founded in 672 BC.[23]
The most interesting finds come from two cemeteries at Acciaierie and S. Pietro in Campo, where about 2,000 tombs were discovered from the 10th to 4th centuries BC. At first, people cremated their dead, but by the 8th century BC they began burying them in graves. Many tombs belonged to warrior leaders and had rich gifts similar to those from southern Etruria. The graves were marked with stone circles or mounds, a tradition common in central Italy.[24]
Assisi, calledAsisium by the Romans, was an ancient Umbrian site on a spur ofMount Subasio. Myth relates that the city was founded byDardanus in 847 BC.Perugia andOrvieto were instead of Etruscan origin. According to the geographical distribution of the Umbrian territory, they are located on the left side of the Tiber River, which is part of the ancient Etruria. Umbri were on the opposite side of the river.
The Umbrians spoke anItalic language related toLatin, although theUmbrian language was more specifically a member of theOsco-Umbrian branch of Italic rather than theLatino-Faliscan branch to which Latin belongs.[25] There are about thirty inscriptions written in the Umbrian language. They include public writings, religious messages, boundary marks, ownership signs, funeral writings, artist names, and coin writings. The most important are the Iguvine Tablets—seven bronze plates written in Umbrian using two alphabets: the Etruscan alphabet and the Latin alphabet. They were found inGubbio near an old Roman theater in the 1400s.[26]
TheIguvine Tablets were discovered in 1444 atScheggia, nearGubbio, Italy. Composed during the 2nd or 3rd centuries BC, they describe religious rituals involving animal sacrifice.[27] The modern Festival of Ceri, celebrated every year in Gubbio on May 15 in honor of BishopUbald or Ubaldo of Gubbio (1084-1160), shares certain features with the rites described in aforementioned Iguvine tables mentioned above, and so may be a survival of that ancient pre-Christian custom. It is also celebrated in Jessup, PA, a town with a large number of immigrants from the Gubbio area, asSaint Ubaldo Day.[28]
Numerous deities are described in the Iguvine Tablets, many likely as subordinates to other more important gods such as Jupiter or Mars. These potentially lesser divinities are often mentioned with epithets, usually the names of other gods. For instance, the divine entityTurse ("the one-who-terrifies") is variously recorded as "Tuse Çerfie" ("Torsa Cerfia") and "Tuse Iovia" ("Torsa Jovia").[29] Likewise, the goddessPrestate ("the one-who-protects") is recorded in the Iguvine Tablets as "Prestate Çerfie," implying an association with the godÇerfe. These Umbrian deities may have served as deified representations of general ideas associated with other gods. If this theory is accepted, then the goddessPrestate would have personified the concept of protection and would have been invoked when another good was propriated for their protective capabilities.[27] De Cazanove compares these Umbrianonomastic formulae to the "books of the priests" ("libris sacerdotum") mentioned byAulus Gellius that supposedly include phrases such as "Salacia ofNeptune" ("Salaciam Neptuni") or "Maia ofVulcan" ("Maiam Volcani").[29][30]
The linguistFrancesco Burroni suggests that UmbrianÇerfie may derive from earlier*KerVzio-, itself possibly from Proto-Indo-European*ḱerh₁/₃(e)sii̯o-, which perhaps derives from*ḱerh₁/₃ēs, whence also possibly the Roman godCeres.[31] Likewise, the philologistMichiel de Vaan suggests that UmbrianÇerfe derives fromProto-Italic*keres-o-, which he considers to be a "male counterpart to Ceres." According to de Vaan, the termÇerfie—an adjectival form of the theonym—probably derives from an earlier form*keresjo-.[32] However, the historianBarbette Spaeth doubts the accuracy of this comparison, noting that—unlike Ceres—the Umbrian divinity is largely associated with war.[33] Another possibility, suggested on the basis of Paeligniancerfum, maintains that the Umbrian term derives from Proto-Indo-European*ḱerdʰo-, whence also perhaps Sanskritśárdha ("troop," "horde").[34]
The Iguvine Tablets describe a sacrifice to the godsJupiter,Mars, and an obscure deity namedVufiune.[27] Etymologically, the name of this deity has been connected to the Proto-Indo-European root*h₁lewdʰ- ("to grow").[35] Alternatively, his name may be related to Latinvoveō ("to vow") and derive from the Proto-Indo-European root*h₁wegʷʰ- ("to promise, vow"), perhaps indicating that the domain of the deity pertained to vows.[36]Vufiune may correspond to the Roman deityQuirinus, a member of the hypothetical RomanArchaic Triad, which may indicate that the Umbrian religion possessed a similar tripartite conceptualization of its chief divinities.[27] Various other Umbrian deities are grouped into triads. For instance, the goddesses Prestota S̀erfia and Tursa S̀erfia are connected with the god S̀erfus Martius.[37]
Both the Umbrian and Roman triads may reflect Proto-Indo-Europeantrifunctionality, a hypothesis advanced by the philologistGeorges Dumézil which argues thatProto-Indo-European religion conceptualized a set of three divinities each associated with military, priestly, and social functions. Within Umbrian and Roman religion, the martial and priestly roles were fulfilled by Mars and Jupiter respectively, althoughVufiune may have fulfilled the societal role in Umbrian religion.[38] However, the archaeologist Olivier de Cazanove argues that the similarities between Roman and Umbrian tripartism may only exist at the surface level, as the three deities are mentioned within the context of a particular ritual function that itself may be unrelated to any known Roman ceremony.[39] Moreover, even if the Umbrian triad reflects a Proto-Indo-European tradition, the extent to which it was directly inherited from the Proto-Indo-European religion or borrowed from neighboring cultures is unclear.[38]
Umbrian sanctuaries were usually established on mountains, often the highest mountain peak within the surrounding area.[40] Though, other sanctuary sites are known to have existed nearlakes,caves,hills,hillforts, or settlements.[41][42] Evidence of thousands of animal bone fragments fromMonte Ansciano attests to consumption and feasting rituals, which—given the highly visible nature of Umbrian mountaintop sanctuaries, many of which were situated in such a manner that they were viewable from the other sites—perhaps publicly emphasized the existence of Umbrian group to the others.[43] Various Umbrian sanctuaries appear to be located in areas that were previously home to other structures, usually during theBronze Age around the 12th-11th centuries BCE.[44] It is likely that the reoccupation of such spaces was premised on either distant memories of their former significance or because their age had conferred a sense of importance onto them.[44] Numerous hilltop sanctuaries in Gubbio were situated in such a manner that they were often visible from each other, perhaps reflecting a sense of shared communal identity.[45]
Umbrian sanctuaries generally varied significantly in construction technique, with each individual cult site likely designed—not according to any standardized model—but instead to best satisfy the needs of the local populace.[46] Unlike theLatins and theEtruscans, who—during the 6th-century BCE—developed unique architectural styles that became characteristic of their religious sites, the Umbrians primarily utilized open-air spaces largely devoid of any manmade structures as their sacred spaces.[46] Nevertheless, there are still scant traces of architectural constructions at various Umbrian ritual areas.[46] In certain sacred spaces, manmade structures may have been used to define the territorial boundaries of the site.[46] For instance, the sanctuary ofMonte Ansciano demarcated its sacred space utilizing alimestone platform constructed atop an older wall dated to the Bronze Age.[47] Similarly, the sanctuaries ofMonte Acuto andColle Mori outlined their territories utilizingdrystone walls composed oflimestone that surrounded a rectangular sacred space,[48][49] which—inMonte Acuto— was likely involved insacrificial rituals.[48]
Nearby the rectangular space of Monte Acuto lay a pit that contained—among various other artifacts—votive objects and fragments ofbovine skeletons, which likely belonged to the sacrificed animals.[50] Likewise, the sanctuary ofColle Mori contained a pit at the center of its rectangular space that also contained votive objects, although it also likely functioned as acistern.[49] InMonte Moro, it is likely that the pit was also once a cistern that served to store food, gatherrainwater,[46] and house votive objects.[51] However, the pit atMonte Torre Maggiore may have functioned as the foundation of the sanctuary space, as it was uncovered filled with sand underneath thepronaos of a later 3rd-century CE temple.[52]
Large quantities ofvotive objects have been uncovered at Umbrian sites, perhaps indicating that votive dedication was a ubiquitous aspect of Umbrian religious life.[53] It was common for Umbrian votive artifacts to portray body parts, perhaps due to a belief that such depictions could induce certain medical benefits.[53] Umbrian votives also frequently human warriors or individuals with outstretched arms, who were presumably supplicating a deity.[54] The extremities of these figurines were typically sharp and pointed, and they were sometimes marked byoblique incisions which could denote the fingers or the feet.[55] Animal depictions were also common in Umbrian votive art, perhaps due to some association withsacrificial animals orpastoralism.[56] Agrarian themes may likewise underlie the warrior figurines, which themselves may be associated withMars—a deity often connected to agriculture in Italic religion.[56] Such Mars figurines often appear on routes connecting theAdriatic Sea and theApennine mountains, which may imply worship of Mars in his agricultural capacity, perhaps as a guardian ofpastoralists andtranshumance.[57] Arianna Pavia argues that Umbrian votives may have served asmetonymical representations of broader concepts pertaining to daily life within Umbrian society.[58] According to this theory, the anatomical votives functioned as figurative depictions of human individuals and the warrior votives were associated with protection from any potential threats.[59]
Votive objects were perhaps created and sold at the sanctuary sites themselves, as the remains of metalslags from Grotta Bella and Monte Torre Maggiore attest to the local manufacture of metallic substances.[60] Typically, the votives were composed ofbronze, although several examples oflead votives have been uncovered atPantanelli andGrotta Bella.[56] Stylistically, Umbrian votives are comparable with other contemporary statuettes uncovered in Latium, which may attest to underlying shared cultural elements governing the design of the votives in both areas.[61] However, analysis of Italic figurines conducted utilizingX-ray fluorescence has indicated that Umbrian figurines contained lessiron than the statuettes from theEsquiline hill inRome.[62] Discrepancies in iron contents between the two regions may itself suggest that the areas differed in regard to their metalworking technology, with Rome perhaps possessing more advancedsmithing techniques.[63]
Spikes or spurs were often attached to the bottoms of votive objects, which may indicate that they were fixed to some object for display.[64] This theory is further corroborated by the discovery ofnails at multiple Umbrian sanctuaries, which—according to the archaeologist Arianna Pavia—may have been used to connect wooden planks together or to attach these planks to other structures.[65] Pavia further suggests that certain figurines forged from bronze or leadsheets may have been suspended from holes pierced through the metallic surface, citing the presence of one such bronze sheet fromMonte San Pancrazio that contains a hole within its surface.[66] In the pit at Monte Torre Maggiore, a coin ofCommodus was unearthed in the same layer as sets of archaic votives, indicating that the well remained uncovered, with the votives on display, from the archaic period to at least the 2nd-century CE.[51]
Most votives were of relatively simple construction, perhaps indicating that they were deposited by less affluent individuals, whereas the few elaborately crafted bronzes may have been provided by higher-status persons. However, the metal utilized to produce the votives was itself usually valuable, which may indicate that they were all left by wealthy individuals who each may have dedicated numerous votive offerings.[53] Alternatively, Pavia argues that the extreme rarity of more elaborate figurines may indicate that the deposition of ostentatious votives was generally avoided in Umbrian culture, even if the suppliant could afford such expenses.[67] Regardless, if the ceremonial offering of votives was available to every Umbrian, even those of low status, then the ritual may have functioned as a communal activity and therefore may have reinforced a shared sense of group identity.[67] Furthermore, Pavia notes that numerous Umbrian sanctuaries contain types of votive figurine exclusive to that sanctuary.[67] For instance, the site ofMonte Santo included several statuettes likely produced by a local artisan that, although somewhat similar to more common styles of Umbrian figurine, were still largely unique.[68] According to Pavia, Umbrian sanctuaries may have adopted distinctive styles of votives to assert their own individuality as a community among the broader Umbrian populace.[67]
While there is little direct information about ancient Umbrian political structure, it is fairly clear that two men held the supreme magistracy ofuhtur and were responsible for supervising rituals. Other civic offices included themarone, which had a lower status thanuhtur (closely related to Latinauctor whence English "author"), and a religious position namedkvestur (cognate to or a borrowing of LatinQuaestor). The Umbrian social structure was divided into distinct groups probably based upon military rank. During the reign ofAugustus, four Umbrian aristocrats became senators. EmperorNerva's family was from Umbria.[69]
According to Guy Jolyon Bradley, " The religious sites of the region have been thought to reveal a society dominated by agricultural and pastoral concerns, to which town life came late in comparison to Etruria."[69]
Throughout the 9th-4th centuries BC, imported goods fromGreece andEtruria were common, as well as the production of local pottery.
The Romans first made contact with Umbria in 310 BC and settled Latin colonies there in 299 BC, 268 BC and 241 BC. They had completed their conquest of Umbria by approximately 260 BC. TheVia Flaminia linking areas of Umbria was complete by 220 BC. Cities in Umbria also contributed troops to Rome for its many wars. Umbrians fought underScipio Africanus in 205 BC during theSecond Punic War. ThePraetorian Guard recruited from Etruria and Umbria. The Umbri played a minor role in theSocial War and as a result were granted citizenship in 90 BC. Roman veterans were settled in Umbria during the reign of Augustus.[69]
A 2020 analysis of maternal haplogroups from ancient and modern samples indicated a substantial genetic similarity among the modern inhabitants ofUmbria and the area's ancient pre-Roman inhabitants, and evidence of substantial genetic continuity in the region from pre-Roman times to the present with regard tomitochondrial DNA. Both modern and ancient Umbrians were found to have high rates of mtDNA haplogroups U4 and U5a, and an overrepresentation of J (at roughly 30%). The study also found that, "local genetic continuities are further attested to by six terminal branches (H1e1, J1c3, J2b1, U2e2a, U8b1b1 and K1a4a)" also shared by ancient and modern Umbrians.[70]
Briquel's convincing demonstration that the famous story of an exodus, led by Tyrrhenus from Lydia to Italy, was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th cent. BCE.
Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins.
From Caius Sempronius (De Divis. Ital.,); "The portion of the Apennines from the sources of the Tiber to the Nar, the Umbri inhabit, the oldest stock of the Old Gael, (Veteres Galli), as Augustus writes." [Apenninum colunt Ligures, portionem vero Apennini inhabitant Umbri, prima veterum Gallorum proies, ut Augustus scribit.]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Solinus informs us that Bocchus, a writer who has been several times cited by Pliny, reported the Umbri to have been descended from the ancient Gauls; and a similar account of their origin has been adopted, either from the same or from different testimony, by Servius, Isidore, and other writers of a late period.
But Zenodotus of Troezen, a...historian, relates that the Umbrians, a native race, first dwelt in the Reatine territory, as it is called, and that, being driven from there by the Pelasgians, they came into the country which they now inhabit and changing their name with their place of habitation, from Umbrians were called Sabines. But Porcius Cato says that the Sabine race received its name from Sabus, the son of Sancus, a divinity of that country, and that this Sancus was by some called Jupiter Fidius.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
