Techno is agenre ofelectronic dance music^[2] which is generallyproduced for use in a continuousDJ set, withtempos being in the range from 120 to 150 beats per minute (bpm). The centralrhythm is typically incommon time (⁴
₄) and often characterized by a repetitivefour on the floorbeat.^[3] Artists may useelectronic instruments such asdrum machines,sequencers, andsynthesizers, as well asdigital audio workstations. Drum machines from the 1980s such asRoland'sRoland TR-808 andRoland TR-909 are highly prized, andsoftware emulations of suchretro instruments are popular in this style.

Much of the instrumentation in techno is used to emphasize the role ofrhythm over othermusical aspects.Vocals andmelodies are uncommon. The use ofsound synthesis in developing distinctivetimbres tends to feature more prominently. Typicalharmonic practices found in other forms of music are often ignored in favor of repetitive sequences of notes. More generally the creation of techno is heavily dependent onmusic production technology.

Use of the term "techno" to refer to a type ofelectronic music originated inGermany in the early 1980s.^[4] In 1988, following the UK release of the compilationTechno! The New Dance Sound of Detroit, the term came to be associated with a form of EDM produced in Detroit.^[5][6]Detroit techno resulted from the melding ofsynth-pop by artists such asKraftwerk,Giorgio Moroder andYellow Magic Orchestra withAfrican American styles such ashouse,electro, andfunk.^[7] Added to this is the influence offuturistic andscience-fiction themes^[8] relevant to life in contemporary American society, withAlvin Toffler's bookThe Third Wave a notable point of reference.^[9][10] The music produced in the mid-to-late 1980s byJuan Atkins,Derrick May, andKevin Saunderson (collectively known asThe Belleville Three), along withEddie Fowlkes,Blake Baxter,James Pennington and others is viewed as thefirst wave of techno from Detroit.^[11]

After the success of house music inEurope, techno grew in popularity in theUnited Kingdom, Germany,Belgium and TheNetherlands. Regional variants quickly evolved and by the early 1990s techno subgenres such asacid,hardcore,bleep,ambient, anddub techno had developed. Music journalists and fans of techno are generally selective in their use of the term, so a clear distinction can be made between sometimes related but often qualitatively different styles, such astech house andtrance.^{[12][13][14][15]}

In exploring Detroit techno's origins, writerKodwo Eshun maintains that "Kraftwerk are to techno whatMuddy Waters is to theRolling Stones: the authentic, the origin, the real."^[16]Juan Atkins has acknowledged that he had an early enthusiasm for Kraftwerk andGiorgio Moroder, particularly Moroder's work withDonna Summer and the producer's own albumE=MC². Atkins also mentions that "around 1980, I had a tape of nothing but Kraftwerk,Telex,Devo, Giorgio Moroder andGary Numan, and I'd ride around in my car playing it."^[17] Regarding his initial impression of Kraftwerk, Atkins notes that they were "clean and precise" relative to the "weird UFO sounds" featured in his seemingly "psychedelic" music.^[18]

Derrick May identified the influence of Kraftwerk and other European synthesizer music in commenting that "it was just classy and clean, and to us it was beautiful, like outer space. Living around Detroit, there was so little beauty... everything is an ugly mess in Detroit, and so we were attracted to this music. It, like, ignited our imagination!".^[19] May has commented that he considered his music a direct continuation of the European synthesizer tradition.^[20] He also identified Japanese synth-pop actYellow Magic Orchestra, particularly memberRyuichi Sakamoto, and British bandUltravox, as influences, along with Kraftwerk.^[21] YMO's song "Technopolis" (1979), a tribute toTokyo as an electronic mecca, is considered an "interesting contribution" to the development of Detroit techno, foreshadowing concepts that Atkins and Davis would later explore with Cybotron.^[22]

Kevin Saunderson has also acknowledged the influence of Europe but he claims to have been more inspired by the idea of making music with electronic equipment: "I was more infatuated with the idea that I can do this all myself."^[20]

These early Detroit techno artists additionally employedscience fiction imagery to articulate their visions of a transformed society.^[23]

Prior to achieving notoriety, Atkins, Saunderson, May, and Fowlkes shared common interests as budding musicians,"mix" tape traders, and aspiring DJs.^[24] They also found musical inspiration via theMidnight Funk Association, an eclectic five-hour late-night radio program hosted on various Detroit radio stations, includingWCHB,WGPR, and WJLB-FM from 1977 through the mid-1980s by DJ Charles "The Electrifying Mojo" Johnson.^[25] Mojo's show featuredelectronic music by artists such as Giorgio Moroder, Kraftwerk, Yellow Magic Orchestra andTangerine Dream, alongside the funk sounds of acts such asParliament Funkadelic and dance orientednew wave music by bands likeDevo andthe B-52's.^[26] Atkins has noted:

He [Mojo] played all the Parliament andFunkadelic that anybody ever wanted to hear. Those two groups were really big in Detroit at the time. In fact, they were one of the main reasons whydisco didn't really grab hold in Detroit in '79. Mojo used to play a lot of funk just to be different from all the other stations that had gone over to disco. When 'Knee Deep' came out, that just put the last nail in the coffin of disco music.^[17]

Despite the short-liveddisco boom in Detroit, it had the effect of inspiring many individuals to take up mixing, Juan Atkins among them. Subsequently, Atkins taught May how to mix records, and in 1981, "Magic Juan", Derrick "Mayday", in conjunction with three other DJ's, one of whom was Eddie "Flashin" Fowlkes, launched themselves as a party crew called Deep Space Soundworks^[27][28] (also referred to as Deep Space).^[29] In 1980 or 1981, they met with Mojo and proposed that they provide mixes for his show, which they did end up doing the following year.^[17]

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, high school clubs such as Brats, Charivari, Ciabattino, Comrades, Gables, Hardwear, Rafael, Rumours, Snobs, and Weekends^[30] allowed the young promoters to develop and nurture a local dance music scene. As the local scene grew in popularity, DJs began to band together to market their mixing skills andsound systems to clubs that were hoping to attract larger audiences. Local church activity centers, vacant warehouses, offices, andYMCA auditoriums were the early locations where the musical form was nurtured.^[31]

Of the four individuals responsible for establishing techno as a genre in its own right, Juan Atkins is widely cited as "The Originator".^[32] In 1995, the American music technology publicationKeyboard Magazine honored him as one of12 Who Count in the history of keyboard music.^[33]

In the early 1980s, Atkins began recording with musical partner Richard Davis (and later with a third member, Jon-5) as Cybotron. This trio released a number of rock and electro-inspired tunes,^[34] the most successful of which wereClear (1983) and its moodier followup, "Techno City" (1984).^[35][36]

Atkins used the termtechno to describe Cybotron's music, taking inspiration fromFuturist author Alvin Toffler, the original source for words such ascybotron andmetroplex. Atkins has described earlier synthesizer based acts like Kraftwerk as techno, although many would consider both Kraftwerk's and Juan's Cybotron outputs as electro.^[37] Atkins viewed Cybotron'sCosmic Cars (1982) as unique, Germanic, synthesized funk, but he later heardAfrika Bambaataa's "Planet Rock" (1982) and considered it to be a superior example of the music he envisioned. Inspired, he resolved to continue experimenting, and he encouraged Saunderson and May to do likewise.^[38]

Eventually, Atkins started producing his own music under the pseudonymModel 500, and in 1985 he established the record labelMetroplex.^[39] The same year saw an important turning point for the Detroit scene with the release of Model 500's "No UFO's," a seminal work that is generally considered the first techno production.^{[40][41][42][43][44]} Of this time, Atkins has said:

When I started Metroplex around February or March of '85 and released "No UFO's," I thought I was just going to make my money back on it, but I wound up selling between 10,000 and 15,000 copies. I had no idea that my record would happen in Chicago. Derrick's parents had moved there, and he was making regular trips between Detroit and Chicago. So when I came out with 'No UFO's,' he took copies out to Chicago and gave them to some DJs, and it just happened.^[17]

The music's producers, especially May and Saunderson, admit to having been fascinated by the Chicago club scene and influenced by house in particular.^[45][46] May's 1987 hit "Strings of Life" (released under the alias Rhythim Is Rhythim [sic]) is considered a classic in both the house and techno genres.^[46][47][48]

Juan Atkins also believes that the firstacid house producers, seeking to distance house music from disco, emulated the techno sound.^[49] Atkins also suggests that the Chicago house sound developed as a result ofFrankie Knuckles' using a drum machine he bought from Derrick May.^[50] He claims:

Derrick sold Chicago DJ Frankie Knuckles a TR909 drum machine. This was back when the Powerplant was open in Chicago, but before any of the Chicago DJs were making records. They were all into playing Italian imports; 'No UFOs' was the only U.S.-based independent record that they played. So Frankie Knuckles started using the 909 at his shows at the Powerplant. Boss had just brought out their little sampling footpedal, and somebody took one along there. Somebody was on the mic, and they sampled that and played it over the drumtrack pattern. Having got the drum machine and the sampler, they could make their own tunes to play at parties. One thing just led to another, and Chip E used the 909 to make his own record, and from then on, all these DJs in Chicago borrowed that 909 to come out with their own records.^[17]

In the UK, a club following for house music grew steadily from 1985, with interest sustained by scenes in London, Manchester, Nottingham, and later Sheffield and Leeds. The DJs thought to be responsible for house's early UK success includeMike Pickering,Mark Moore,Colin Faver, andGraeme Park (DJ).^[51]

The early producers, enabled by the increasing affordability of sequencers and synthesizers, merged a European synth-pop aesthetic with aspects ofsoul, funk, disco, and electro, pushing EDM into uncharted terrain. They deliberately rejected theMotown legacy and traditional formulas ofR&B and soul, and instead embraced technological experimentation.^{[52][53][54][55]}

Within the last 5 years or so, the Detroit underground has been experimenting with technology, stretching it rather than simply using it. As the price of sequencers and synthesizers has dropped, so the experimentation has become more intense. Basically, we're tired of hearing about being in love or falling out, tired of the R&B system, so a new progressive sound has emerged. We call it techno!

— Juan Atkins, 1988^[52]

The resulting Detroit sound was interpreted by Derrick May and one journalist in 1988 as a "post-soul" sound with no debt toMotown,^[53][54] but by another journalist a decade later as "soulful grooves" melding the beat-centric styles of Motown with the music technology of the time.^[56] May described the sound of techno as something that is "...like Detroit...a complete mistake. It's likeGeorge Clinton and Kraftwerk are stuck in an elevator with only a sequencer to keep them company."^[53][54] Juan Atkins has stated that it is "music that sounds like technology, and not technology that sounds like music, meaning that most of the music you listen to is made with technology, whether you know it or not. But with techno music, you know it."^[57]

One of the first Detroit productions to receive wider attention was Derrick May's "Strings of Life" (1987), which, together with May's previous release, "Nude Photo" (1987), helped raise techno's profile in Europe, especially the UK and Germany, during the 1987–1988 house music boom (seeSecond Summer of Love).^[58] It became May's best known track, which, according to Frankie Knuckles, "just exploded. It was like something you can't imagine, the kind of power and energy people got off that record when it was first heard. Mike Dunn says he has no idea how people can accept a record that doesn't have a bassline."^[59]

By 1988, house music had exploded in the UK, and acid house was increasingly popular.^[51] There was also a long-established warehouse partysubculture based around thesound system scene. In 1988, the music played at warehouse parties was predominantly house. That same year, theBalearic party vibe associated with Ibiza-based DJAlfredo Fiorito was transported to London, whenDanny Rampling andPaul Oakenfold opened the clubs Shoom and Spectrum, respectively. Both night spots quickly became synonymous with acid house, and it was during this period that the use ofMDMA, as a party drug, started to gain prominence. Other important UK clubs at this time included Back to Basics inLeeds, Sheffield's Leadmill and Music Factory, and in ManchesterThe Haçienda, where Mike Pickering and Graeme Park's Friday night spot, Nude, was an important proving ground for Americanunderground^[60]dance music. Acid house party fever escalated in London and Manchester, and it quickly became a cultural phenomenon. MDMA-fueled club goers, faced with 2 A.M. closing hours, sought refuge in the warehouse party scene that ran all night. To escape the attention of the press and the authorities, this after-hours activity quickly went underground. Within a year, however, up to 10,000 people at a time were attending the first commercially organized mass parties, calledraves, and a media storm ensued.^[61]

The success of house and acid house paved the way for wider acceptance of the Detroit sound, and vice versa: techno was initially supported by a handful of house music clubs in Chicago, New York, and Northern England, with London clubs catching up later;^[62] but in 1987, it was "Strings of Life" which eased London club-goers into acceptance of house, according to DJ Mark Moore.^[63][64]

The mid-1988 UK release ofTechno! The New Dance Sound of Detroit,^[65][66] an album compiled by ex-Northern Soul DJ and Kool Kat Records bossNeil Rushton (at the time anA&R scout for Virgin's "10 Records" imprint) and Derrick May, introduced of the wordtechno to UK audiences.^[5][6] Although the compilation puttechno into the lexicon of music journalism in the UK, the music was initially viewed as Detroit's interpretation of Chicago house rather than as a separate genre.^[6][67] The compilation's working title had beenThe House Sound of Detroit until the addition of Atkins' song "Techno Music" prompted reconsideration.^[65][68] Rushton was later quoted as saying he, Atkins, May, and Saunderson came up with the compilation's final name together, and that the Belleville Three voted down calling the music some kind of regional brand of house; they instead favored a term they were already using,techno.^[6][68][69]

Derrick May views this as one of his busiest times and recalls that it was a period where he

I was working withCarl Craig, helping Kevin, helping Juan, trying to put Neil Rushton in the right position to meet everybody, trying to getBlake Baxter endorsed so that everyone liked him, trying to convince Shake (Anthony Shakir) that he should be more assertive... and keep making music as well as do the Mayday mix (for the show Street Beat on Detroit's WJLB radio station) and run Transmat records.^[65]

Commercially, the release did not fare as well and failed torecoup, but Inner City's production "Big Fun" (1988), a track that was almost not included on the compilation, became acrossover hit in fall 1988.^[70] The record was also responsible for bringing industry attention to May, Atkins and Saunderson, which led to discussions withZTT records about forming a technosupergroup calledIntellex. But, when the group were on the verge of finalising their contract, May allegedly refused to agree toTop of the Pops appearances and negotiations collapsed.^[71] According to May, ZTT label bossTrevor Horn had envisaged that the trio would be marketed as a "blackPetshop Boys."^[72]

DespiteVirgin Records' disappointment with the poor sales of Rushton's compilation,^[73] the record was successful in establishing an identity for techno and was instrumental in creating a platform in Europe for both the music and its producers.^[74] Ultimately, the release served to distinguish the Detroit sound from Chicago house and other forms of underground dance music that were emerging during the rave era of the late 1980s and early 1990s, a period during which techno became more adventurous and distinct.^[75][76]

In mid-1988, developments in the Detroit scene led to the opening of a nightclub called the Music Institute (MI), located at 1315 Broadway in downtown Detroit. The venue was secured byGeorge Baker andAlton Miller with Darryl Wynn and Derrick May participating as Friday night DJs, and Baker and Chez Damier playing to a mostlygay crowd on Saturday nights.

The club closed on 24 November 1989, with Derrick May playing "Strings of Life" along with a recording of clock tower bells.^[77] May explains:

It all happened at the right time by mistake, and it didn't last because it wasn't supposed to last. Our careers took off right around the time we [the MI] had to close, and maybe it was the best thing. I think we were peaking – we were so full of energy and we didn't know who we were or [how to] realize our potential. We had no inhibitions, no standards, we just did it. That's why it came off so fresh and innovative, and that's why... we got the best of the best.[77]

Though short-lived, MI was known internationally for its all-night sets, its sparse white rooms, and its juice bar stocked with "smart drinks" (the Institute never served liquor). The MI, notes Dan Sicko, along with Detroit's early techno pioneers, "helped give life to one of the city's important musical subcultures – one that was slowly growing into an international scene."^[77]

In 1982, while working at Frankfurt's City Music record store, DJTalla 2XLC ^[de] started to use the termtechno to categorize artists such asDepeche Mode,Front 242,Heaven 17,Kraftwerk andNew Order, with the word used as shorthand for technologically created dance music. Talla's categorization became a point of reference for other DJs, includingSven Väth.^[78][79] Talla further popularized the term in Germany when he foundedTechnoclub ^[de] at Frankfurt's No Name Club in 1984, which later moved to theDorian Gray club in 1987.^[78][79] Talla's club spot served as the hub for the regional EBM and electronic music scene, and according toJürgen Laarmann ^[de], ofFrontpage magazine, it had historical merit in being the first club in Germany to play almost exclusively EDM.^[80]

Inspired by Talla's music selection, in the early 80s several young artists from Frankfurt started to experiment on cassette tapes with electronic music coming from the City Music record store, mixing the latest catalogue with additional electronic sounds and pitched BPM. This became known as the Frankfurt tape scene.

The Frankfurt tape scene evolved around the early and experimental work done by the likes of Tobias Freund,Uwe Schmidt, Lars Müller and Martin Schopf.^[81] Some of the work done by Andreas Tomalla, Markus Nikolai and Thomas Franzmann evolved in collaborative work under theBigod 20 collective. While this early work was strongly characterized as experimental electronic music fused with strong EBM,krautrock, synth-pop andtechnopop influences, the later work during the mid and late 1980s clearly transitioned to a clear techno sound.

By 1987 a German party scene based around the Chicago sound was well established.^{[citation needed]} In the late 1980s, acid house also established itself inWest Germany as a new trend in clubs and discotheques.^{[82][better source needed]} In 1988, theUfo opened inWest Berlin, an illegal venue for acid house parties, which existed until 1990.^{[83][unreliable source?]} InMunich at this time, theNegerhalle (1983–1989) and theETA-Halle established themselves as the first acid house clubs in temporarily used, dilapidated industrial halls, marking the beginning of the so-called "hall culture" in Germany.^[84][85]

In July 1989Dr. Motte [de] andDanielle de Picciotto organized the firstLove Parade in West Berlin, just a few months before theFall of the Berlin Wall.^[86]

Following the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and theGerman reunification in October 1990, free underground techno parties mushroomed inEast Berlin.^[83] East German DJPaul van Dyk has remarked that techno was a major force in reestablishing social connections between East and West Germany during the unification period.^[87] In the now reunified Berlin, several locations opened near the foundations of the Berlin Wall in the former eastern part of the city from 1991 onwards: theTresor (est. 1991), thePlanet (1991–1993), theBunker (1992–1996), and theE-Werk (1993–1997).^[88][89] It was in Tresor at this time that a trend in paramilitary clothing was established (amongst the techno fraternity) by DJTanith;^[90] possibly as an expression of a commitment to the underground aesthetic of the music, or perhaps influenced byUR's paramilitary posturing.^[91] In the same period, German DJs began intensifying the speed and abrasiveness of the sound, as an acid infused techno began transmuting intohardcore.^[92] DJ Tanith commented at the time that "Berlin was always hardcore, hardcorehippie, hardcore punk, and now we have a very hardcore house sound."^[88] This emerging sound is thought to have been influenced by Dutchgabber and Belgian hardcore; styles that were in their own perverse way paying homage toUnderground Resistance and Richie Hawtin'sPlus 8 Records. Other influences on the development of this style were Europeanelectronic body music (EBM) groups of the mid-1980s such asDAF,Front 242, andNitzer Ebb.^[93]

Changes were also taking place in Frankfurt during the same period but it did not share the egalitarian approach found in the Berlin party scene. It was instead very much centered around discothèques and existing arrangements with various club owners. In 1988, after theOmen opened, the Frankfurt dance music scene was allegedly dominated by the club's management and they made it difficult for other promoters to get a start. By the early 1990sSven Väth had become perhaps the first DJ in Germany to be worshipped like a rock star. He performed center stage with his fans facing him, and as co-owner of Omen, he is believed to have been the first techno DJ to run his own club.^[80] One of the few real alternatives then was The Bruckenkopf inMainz, underneath a Rhine bridge, a venue that offered a non-commercial alternative to Frankfurt'sdiscothèque-based clubs. Other notable underground parties were those run byForce Inc. Music Works ^[de] andAta ^[de] &Heiko ^[de] from Playhouse records (Ongaku Musik ^[de]). By 1992DJ Dag ^[de] &Torsten Fenslau were running a Sunday morning session atDorian Gray, a plush discothèque near theFrankfurt airport. They initially played a mix of different styles including Belgiannew beat,Deep House, Chicago House, and synth-pop such as Kraftwerk and Yello and it was out of this blend of styles that the Frankfurt trance scene is believed to have emerged.^[80]

In 1990, theBabalu Club, the firstafterhours techno club in Germany, opened in Munich and was a place for the formation of the southern German techno scene, where protagonists such asDJ Hell,Monika Kruse,Tom Novy orWoody ^[de] came together.^[84][85][94]

In 1993–94 rave became a mainstream music phenomenon in Germany, seeing with it a return to "melody, New Age elements, insistently kitsch harmonies and timbres". This undermining of the German underground sound lead to the consolidation of a German "rave establishment," spearheaded by the party organisationMayday, with its record labelLow Spirit,WestBam,Marusha, and a music channel calledVIVA. At this time the German popular music charts were riddled with Low Spirit "pop-Tekno" German folk music reinterpretations of tunes such as "Somewhere Over The Rainbow" and "Tears Don't Lie", many of which became hits. At the same time, in Frankfurt, a supposed alternative was a music characterized by Simon Reynolds as "moribund, middlebrow Electro-Trance music, as represented by Frankfurt's own Sven Väth and hisHarthouse label."^[95] Illegal raves, however, regained importance in the German techno scene as a countermovement to the commercial mass raves in the mid-1990s.^[96]

In Germany, fans started to refer to the harder techno sound emerging in the early 1990s asTekkno ^[de] (orBrett).^[83] This alternative spelling, with varying numbers ofks, began as a tongue-in-cheek attempt to emphasize the music's hardness, but by the mid-1990s it came to be associated with a controversial point of view that the music was and perhaps always had been wholly separate from Detroit'stechno, deriving instead from a 1980s EBM-oriented club scene cultivated in part by DJ/musician Talla 2XLC in Frankfurt.^[70]

At some point tension over "who defines techno" arose between scenes in Frankfurt and Berlin. DJ Tanith has expressed that Techno as a term already existed in Germany but was to a large extent undefined.Dimitri Hegemann has stated that the Frankfurt definition of techno associated with Talla's Technoclub differed from that used in Berlin.^[80] Frankfurt's Armin Johnert viewed techno as having its roots in acts such DAF,Cabaret Voltaire, andSuicide, but a younger generation of club goers had a perception of the older EBM andIndustrial as handed down and outdated. The Berlin scene offered an alternative and many began embracing an imported sound that was being referred to asTechno-House. The move away from EBM had started in Berlin when acid house became popular, thanks to Monika Dietl's radio show onSFB 4 ^[de]. Tanith distinguished acid-based dance music from the earlier approaches, whether it be DAF or Nitzer Ebb, because the latter was aggressive, he felt that it epitomized "being against something," but of acid house he said, "it's electronic, it's fun it's nice."^[80] By Spring 1990, Tanith, along withWolle XDP ^[de], an East-Berlin party organizer responsible for the X-tasy Dance Project, were organizing the first large scale rave events in Germany. This development would lead to a permanent move away from the sound associated with Techno-House and toward a hard edged mix of music that came to define Tanith and Wolle'sTekknozid ^[de] parties. According to Wolle it was an "out and out rejection of disco values," instead they created a "sound storm" and encouraged a form of "dance floor socialism," where the DJ was not placed in the middle and you "lose yourself in light and sound."^[80]

As the techno sound evolved in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it also diverged to such an extent that a wide spectrum of stylistically distinct music was being referred to as techno. This ranged from relatively pop oriented acts such asMoby^[97] to the distinctly anti-commercial sentiments^[98] ofUnderground Resistance. Derrick May's experimentation on works such asBeyond the Dance (1989) andThe Beginning (1990) were credited with taking techno "in dozens of new directions at once and having the kind of expansive impact John Coltrane had on Jazz".^[99] TheBirmingham-based labelNetwork Records label was instrumental in introducing Detroit techno to British audiences.^[100] By the early 1990s, the original techno sound had garnered a large underground following in theUnited Kingdom, Germany, theNetherlands andBelgium. The growth of techno's popularity in Europe between 1988 and 1992 was largely due to the emergence of therave scene and a thriving club culture.^[75]

In the United States during the early 90s, apart from regional scenes in Detroit,New York City, Chicago and Orlando, interest in techno was limited. Many Detroit based producers, frustrated by the lack of opportunity in the US, looked to Europe for a future livelihood.^[101] This first wave of Detroit expatriates was soon joined by a so-called "second wave" that included Carl Craig,Octave One, Jay Denham,Kenny Larkin,Stacey Pullen, andUR'sJeff Mills,Mike Banks, andRobert Hood. In the same period, close to Detroit (Windsor, Ontario),Richie Hawtin, with business partnerJohn Acquaviva, launched the techno imprintPlus 8 Records. A number of New York producers also made an impression in Europe at this time, most notablyFrankie Bones, Lenny Dee, andJoey Beltram .^[102]

These developments in American-produced techno between 1990 and 1992 fueled the expansion and eventual divergence of techno in Europe, particularly in Germany.^[103][104] InBerlin, the clubTresor which had opened in 1991 for a time was the standard bearer for techno and played host to many of the leading Detroit producers, some of whom had relocated to Berlin.^[105] The club brought new life to the careers of Detroit artists such as Santonio Echols, Eddie Fowlkes and Blake Baxter, who played there alongside established Berlin DJs such as Dr. Motte and Tanith. According to Dan Sicko, "Germany's growing scene in the early 1990s was the beginning of techno's decentralization", and "techno began to create its second logical center in Berlin". At this time, the now reunified Berlin also began to regain its position as the musical capital of Germany.^[106]

Although eclipsed by Germany,Belgium was another focus of second-wave techno in this time period. TheGhent-based labelR&S Records embracedharder-edged techno by "teenage prodigies" like Beltram andC.J. Bolland, releasing "tough, metallic tracks...with harsh, discordant synth lines that sounded like distressed Hoovers," according to one music journalist.^[107]

In the United Kingdom,Sub Club which opened inGlasgow in 1987,^{[108][better source needed]} andTrade which opened its doors toLondoners in 1990, were venues which helped bring techno into the country.^{[citation needed]} Trade has been referred to as the 'original all night bender'.^[109]

In 1993, the German techno labelTresor Records released the compilation albumTresor II: Berlin & Detroit – A Techno Alliance,^[110] a testament to the influence of the Detroit sound upon the German techno scene and a celebration of a "mutual admiration pact" between the two cities.^[104] As the mid-1990s approached, Berlin was becoming a haven for Detroit producers;Jeff Mills andBlake Baxter even resided there for a time. In the same period, with the assistance of Tresor, Underground Resistance released their X-101/X-102/X103 album series, Juan Atkins collaborated with 3MB'sThomas Fehlmann andMoritz Von Oswald^[104] and Tresor-affiliated labelBasic Channel had its releasesmastered by Detroit's National Sound Corporation, the main mastering house for the entire Detroit dance music scene. In a sense, popular electronic music had come full circle, returning to Germany, home of a primary influence on the EDM of the 1980s:Düsseldorf's Kraftwerk. The dance sounds of Chicago and Detroit also had another German connection, as it was inMunich that Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte first produced the synthesizer-generatedEurodisco sound, including the seminal four-on-the-floor trackI Feel Love.^[111][83]

As techno continued to transmute a number of Detroit producers began to question the trajectory the music was taking. One response came in the form of so-calledminimal techno (a term producerDaniel Bell found difficult to accept, finding the termminimalism, in the artistic sense of the word, too "arty").^[112] It is thought thatRobert Hood, a Detroit-based producer and one time member of UR, is largely responsible for ushering in the minimal strain of techno.^[113] Hood describes the situation in the early 1990s as one where techno had become too"ravey", with increasing tempos, the emergence ofgabber, and related trends straying far from the social commentary andsoul-infused sound of original Detroit techno. In response, Hood and others sought to emphasize a single element of the Detroit aesthetic, interpreting techno with "a basic stripped down, raw sound. Just drums, basslines and funky grooves and only what's essential. Only what is essential to make people move".^[114] Hood explains:

I think Dan [Bell] and I both realized that something was missing – an element... in what we both know as techno. It sounded great from a production point of standpoint, but there was a 'jack' element in the [old] structure. People would complain that there's no funk, no feeling in techno anymore, and the easy escape is to put a vocalist and some piano on top to fill the emotional gap. I thought it was time for a return to the original underground.[115]

Some techno has also been influenced by or directly infused with elements of jazz.^[116] This led to increased sophistication in the use of both rhythm and harmony in a number of techno productions.^[117]Manchester (UK)-based techno act808 State helped fuel this development with tracks such as "Pacific State"^[118] and "Cobra Bora" in 1989.^[119] Detroit producer Mike Banks was heavily influenced by jazz, as demonstrated on the influentialUnderground Resistance releaseNation 2 Nation (1991).^[120] By 1993, Detroit acts such asModel 500 andUR had made explicit references to the genre, with the tracks "Jazz Is The Teacher" (1993)^[107] and "Hi-Tech Jazz" (1993), the latter being part of a larger body of work and group calledGalaxy 2 Galaxy, a self-described jazz project based on Kraftwerk's "man machine" doctrine.^[120][121] This lead was followed by a number of techno producers in the UK who were influenced by both jazz and UR,Dave Angel's "Seas of Tranquility" EP (1994) being a case in point,^[122][123] Other notable artists who set about expanding upon the structure of "classic techno" include Dan Curtin, Morgan Geist, Titonton Duvante and Ian O'Brien.^[124]

In 1991 UK music journalist Matthew Collin wrote that "Europe may have the scene and the energy, but it's America which supplies the ideological direction...if Belgian techno gives us riffs, German techno the noise, British techno the breakbeats, then Detroit supplies the sheer cerebral depth."^[125] By 1992 a number of European producers and labels began to associate rave culture with the corruption and commercialization of the original techno ideal.^[126] Following this the notion of anintelligent or Detroit inspiredpure techno aesthetic began to take hold. Detroit techno had maintained its integrity throughout the rave era and was pushing a new generation of so-calledintelligent techno producers forward. Simon Reynolds suggests that this progression "involved a full-scale retreat from the most radically posthuman and hedonistically functional aspects of rave music toward more traditional ideas about creativity, namely the auteur theory of the solitary genius who humanizes technology."^[127]

The termintelligent techno was used to differentiate more sophisticated versions of underground techno^[128] from rave-oriented styles such asbreakbeat hardcore, Schranz,DutchGabber.Warp Records was among the first to capitalize upon this development with the release of the compilation albumArtificial Intelligence^[129] Of this time, Warp founder and managing director Steve Beckett said

the dance scene was changing and we were hearing B-sides that weren't dance but were interesting and fitted into experimental, progressive rock, so we decided to make the compilationArtificial Intelligence, which became a milestone... it felt like we were leading the market rather than it leading us, the music was aimed at home listening rather than clubs and dance floors: people coming home, off their nuts and having the most interesting part of the night listening to totally tripped out music. The sound fed the scene.[130]

Warp had originally marketedArtificial Intelligence using the descriptionelectronic listening music but this was quickly replaced byintelligent techno. In the same period (1992–93) other names were also bandied about such as armchair techno,ambient techno, andelectronica,^[131] but all referred to an emerging form ofpost-rave dance music for the "sedentary and stay at home".^[132] Following the commercial success of the compilation in the United States,Intelligent Dance Music eventually became the name most commonly used for much of the experimental dance music emerging during the mid-to-late 1990s.

Although it is primarily Warp that has been credited with ushering the commercial growth of IDM and electronica, in the early 1990s there were many notable labels associated with the initialintelligence trend that received little, if any, wider attention. Amongst others they include:Black Dog Productions (1989), Carl Craig's Planet E (1991), Kirk Degiorgio's Applied Rhythmic Technology (1991), Eevo Lute Muzique (1991), General Production Recordings (1991), In 1993, a number of new "intelligent techno"/"electronica" record labels emerged, including New Electronica,Mille Plateaux, 100% Pure (1993) and Ferox Records (1993).

In the early 1990s a post-rave,DIY,free party scene had established itself in the UK. It was largely based around an alliance between warehouse party goers from various urbansquat scenes and politically inspirednew age travellers. The new agers offered a readymade network of countryside festivals that were hastily adopted by squatters and ravers alike.^[133] Prominent among thesound systems operating at this time were Exodus in Luton, Tonka inBrighton, Smokescreen inSheffield,DiY inNottingham, Bedlam, Circus Warp, LSDiesel and London'sSpiral Tribe. The high point of this free party period came in May 1992 when with less than 24 hours notice and little publicity more than 35,000 gathered at theCastlemorton Common Festival for 5 days of partying.^[134]

This one event was largely responsible for the introduction in 1994 of theCriminal Justice and Public Order Act;^[135] effectively leaving the Britishfree party scene for dead. Following this many of the traveller artists moved away from Britain to Europe, the US,Goa inIndia,Koh Phangan inThailand andAustralia's East Coast.^[134] In the rest of Europe, due in some part to the inspiration of traveling sound systems from the UK,^[134] rave enjoyed a prolonged existence as it continued to expand across thecontinent.^[103]

Spiral Tribe, Bedlam and other English sound systems took their cooperative techno ideas to Europe, particularlyEastern Europe where it was cheaper to live, and audiences were quick to appropriate the free party ideology. It was EuropeanTeknival free parties, such as the annualCzechtek event in the Czech Republic that gave rise to several French, German and Dutch sound systems. Many of these groups found audiences easily and were often centered around squats in cities such asAmsterdam andBerlin.^[134]

By 1994 there were a number of techno producers in the UK and Europe building on the Detroit sound, but a number of other underground dance music styles were by then vying for attention. Some drew upon the Detroit techno aesthetic, while others fused components of preceding dance music forms. This led to the appearance (in the UK initially) of inventive new music that sounded far-removed from techno. For instancejungle (drum and bass) demonstrated influences ranging fromhip hop, soul, andreggae to techno and house.

With an increasing diversification (and commercialization) of dance music, the collectivist sentiment prominent in the earlyrave scene diminished, each new faction having its own particular attitude and vision of how dance music (or in certain cases, non-dance music) should evolve. According toMuzik magazine, by 1995 the UK techno scene was in decline and dedicated club nights were dwindling. The music had become "too hard, too fast, too male, too drug-oriented, too anally retentive." Despite this, weekly night at clubs such as Final Frontier (London), The Orbit (Leeds), House of God (Birmingham), Pure (Edinburgh, whose resident DJ Twitch later founded the more eclecticOptimo), and Bugged Out (Manchester) were still popular. With techno reaching a state of "creative palsy," and with a disproportionate number of underground dance music enthusiasts more interested in the sounds of rave and jungle, in 1995 the future of the UK techno scene looked uncertain as the market for "pure techno" waned.Muzik described the sound of UK techno at this time as "dutiful grovelling at the altar of American techno with a total unwillingness to compromise."^[136]

By the end of the 1990s, a number of post-techno^[137] underground styles had emerged, includingghettotech (a style that combines some of the aesthetics of techno withhip-hop and house music),nortec,glitch,digital hardcore,electroclash^[1] and so-calledno-beat techno.^[138]

In attempting to sum up the changes since the heyday of Detroit techno, Derrick May has since revised his famous quote in stating that "Kraftwerk got off on the third floor and now George Clinton's gotNapalm Death in there with him. The elevator's stalled between the pharmacy and the athletic wear store."^[72]

While techno and its derivatives only occasionally produce commercially successful mainstream acts—Underworld andOrbital being two better-known examples—the genre has significantly affected many other areas of music. In an effort to appear relevant, many established artists, for exampleMadonna andU2, have dabbled with dance music, yet such endeavors have rarely evidenced a genuine understanding or appreciation of techno's origins with the former proclaiming in January 1996 that "Techno=Death".^{[139][140][141]}

RapperMissy Elliott exposed the popular music audience to the Detroit techno sound when she featured material from Cybotron'sClear on her 2006 release "Lose Control"; this resulted inJuan Atkins' receiving aGrammy Award nomination for his writing credit. Elliott's 2001 albumMiss E... So Addictive also clearly demonstrated the influence of techno inspired club culture.^[142]

In the late 90s the publication of relatively accurate histories by authorsSimon Reynolds (Generation Ecstasy, also known asEnergy Flash) and Dan Sicko (Techno Rebels), plus mainstream press coverage of theDetroit Electronic Music Festival in the 2000s, helped diffuse some of the genre's more dubious mythology.^[143] Even the Detroit-based companyFord Motors eventually became savvy to the mass appeal of techno, noting that "this music was created partly by the pounding clangor of the Motor City's auto factories. It became natural for us to incorporate Detroit techno into our commercials after we discovered that young people are embracing techno." With a marketing campaign targeting under-35s, Ford used "Detroit Techno" as a print ad slogan and chose Model 500's "No UFO's" to underpin its November 2000MTV television advertisement for theFord Focus.^{[144][145][146][147]}

In 1977,Steve Fairnie andBev Sage formed an electronica band called theTechno Twins in London, England. When Kraftwerk first toured Japan, their music was described as "technopop" by the Japanese press.^[148] The Japanese band Yellow Magic Orchestra used the word 'techno' in a number of their works such as the song "Technopolis" (1979), the albumTechnodelic (1981), and aflexi disc EP, "The Spirit of Techno" (1983).^[149] When Yellow Magic Orchestra toured the United States in 1980, they described their own music as technopop, and were written up inRolling Stone Magazine.^[150] Around 1980, the members of YMO added synthesizer backing tracks to idol songs such asIkue Sakakibara's "Robot", and these songs were classified as 'techno kayou' or 'bubblegum techno.^[151] In 1985,Billboard reviewed the Canadian bandSkinny Puppy's album, and described the genre astechno dance.^[152] Juan Atkins himself said "In fact, there were a lot of electronic musicians around when Cybotron started, and I think maybe half of them referred to their music as 'techno.' However, the public really wasn't ready for it until about '85 or '86. It just so happened that Detroit was there when people really got into it."^[153]

The popularity ofEurodisco andItalo disco—referred to asprogressive in Detroit—andnew romantic synth-pop in the Detroit high school party scene from which techno emerged^[154] has prompted a number of commentators to try to redefine the origins of techno by incorporating musical precursors to the Detroit sound as part of a wider historical survey of the genre's development.^{[16][155][156]} The search for a mythical "first techno record" leads such commentators to consider music from long before the 1988 naming of the genre. Aside from the artists whose music was popular in the Detroit high school scene ("progressive" disco acts such as Giorgio Moroder,Alexander Robotnick, andClaudio Simonetti synth-pop artists such asVisage, New Order, Depeche Mode,The Human League, andHeaven 17), they point to examples such as "Sharevari" (1981) by A Number of Names,^[157] danceable selections from Kraftwerk (1977–83), the earliest compositions byCybotron (1981),Moroder's "From Here to Eternity" (1977), andManuel Göttsching's "proto-techno masterpiece"^[156]E2-E4 (1981). The Eurodisco songI Feel Love, produced by Giorgio Moroder for Donna Summer in 1976, has been described as a milestone and blueprint for EDM because it was the first to combine repetitive synthesizer loops with a continuous four-on-the-floor bass drum and anoff-beat hi-hat, which would become a main feature of techno and house ten years later.^{[158][111][159]} Another example is a record entitledLove in C minor, released in 1976 by Parisian Eurodisco producerJean-Marc Cerrone; cited as the first so called "conceptual disco" production and the record from which house, techno, and other underground dance music styles flowed.^[160] Yet another example is Yellow Magic Orchestra's work which has been described as "proto-techno"^[161][162]

Around 1983, Sheffield bandCabaret Voltaire began including funk and EDM elements into their sound, and in later years, would come to be described as techno.Nitzer Ebb was an Essex band formed in 1982, which also showed funk and EDM influence on their sound around this time. The Danish bandLaid Back released "White Horse" in 1983 with a similar funky electronica sound.

Some electro-disco and European synth-pop productions share with techno a dependence on machine-generated dance rhythms, but such comparisons are not without contention. Efforts to regress further into the past, in search of earlier antecedents, entails a further regression, to the sequenced electronic music ofRaymond Scott, whose "The Rhythm Modulator," "The Bass-Line Generator," and "IBM Probe" are considered early examples of techno-like music. In a review of Scott'sManhattan Research Inc. compilation album theEnglish newspaperThe Independent suggested that "Scott's importance lies mainly in his realization of the rhythmic possibilities ofelectronic music, which laid the foundation for all electro-pop from disco to techno."^[163] In 2008, a tape from the mid-to-late 1960s by the original composer of theDoctor Who themeDelia Derbyshire, was found to contain music that sounded remarkably like contemporary EDM. Commenting on the tape,Paul Hartnoll, of the dance groupOrbital, described the example as "quite amazing," noting that it sounded not unlike something that "could be coming out next week onWarp Records."^[164]

In general, techno is veryDJ-friendly, being mainlyinstrumental (commercial varieties being an exception) and is produced with the intention of its being heard in the context of a continuousDJ set, wherein the DJ progresses from one record to the next via a synchronizedsegue or "mix."^[165] Much of theinstrumentation in techno emphasizes the role ofrhythm over other musical parameters, but the design ofsynthetictimbres, and the creative use ofmusic production technology in general, are important aspects of the overallaesthetic practice.

Unlike other forms of EDM that tend to be produced withsynthesizer keyboards, techno does not always strictly adhere to theharmonic practice ofWestern music and such strictures are often ignored in favor of timbral manipulation alone.^[166] The use ofmotivic development (though relatively limited) and the employment of conventional musical frameworks is more widely found in commercial techno styles, for exampleeuro-trance, where the template is often anAABA song structure.^[167]

The main drum part is almost universally incommon time (⁴
₄); meaning 4quarter notepulses per bar.^[168] In its simplest form,time is marked with kicks (bass drum beats) on each quarter-note pulse, asnare or clap on the second and fourth pulse of the bar, with an openhi-hat sound every second eighth note. This is essentially a drum pattern popularized bydisco (or evenpolka) and is common throughout house andtrance music as well. Thetempo tends to vary between approximately 120bpm (quarter note equals 120 pulses per minute) and 150 bpm, depending on the style of techno.

Some of thedrum programming employed in the original Detroit-based techno made use ofsyncopation andpolyrhythm, yet in many cases the basic disco-type pattern was used as a foundation, with polyrhythmic elaborations added using otherdrum machine voices. This syncopated-feel (funkiness) distinguishes the Detroit strain of techno from other variants. It is a feature that many DJs and producers still use to differentiate their music from commercial forms of techno, the majority of which tend to be devoid of syncopation. Derrick May has summed up the sound as 'Hi-tech Tribalism': something "very spiritual, very bass oriented, and very drum oriented, very percussive. The original techno music was very hi-tech with a very percussive feel... it was extremely, extremely Tribal. It feels like you're in some sort of hi-tech village."^[146]

There are many ways to create techno, but the majority will depend upon the use of loop-basedstep sequencing as a compositional method. Techno musicians, orproducers, rather than employing traditionalcompositional techniques, may work in animprovisatory fashion,^[169] often treating the electronicmusic studio as one large instrument. The collection of devices found in a typical studio will include units that are capable of producing many different sounds and effects. Studio production equipment is generallysynchronized using a hardware- or computer-basedMIDI sequencer, enabling the producer to combine in one arrangement the sequenced output of many devices. A typical approach to using this type of technology compositionally is tooverdub successive layers of material while continuously looping a singlemeasure or sequence of measures. This process will usually continue until a suitablemulti-track arrangement has been produced.^[170]

Once a single loop-based arrangement has been generated, a producer may then focus on developing how the summing of the overdubbed parts will unfold in time, and what the final structure of the piece will be. Some producers achieve this by adding or removing layers of material at appropriate points in the mix. Quite often, this is achieved by physically manipulating amixer, sequencer, effects,dynamic processing,equalization, andfiltering while recording to a multi-track device. Other producers achieve similar results by using the automation features of computer-baseddigital audio workstations. Techno can consist of little more than cleverly programmed rhythmic sequences and looped motifs combined withsignal processing of one variety or another, frequencyfiltering being a commonly used process. A more idiosyncratic approach to production is evident in the music of artists such as Twerk andAutechre, where aspects ofalgorithmic composition are employed in the generation of material.

Instruments used by the original techno producers based in Detroit, many of which are highly sought after on the retro music technology market, include classic drum machines like the RolandTR-808 andTR-909, devices such as the RolandTB-303 bass line generator, and synthesizers such as theRoland SH-101, Kawai KC10,Yamaha DX7, and Yamaha DX100 (as heard on Derrick May's seminal 1987 techno releaseNude Photo).^[99] Much of the early music sequencing was executed viaMIDI (but neither the TR-808 nor the TB-303 had MIDI, onlyDIN sync) using hardware sequencers such as the Korg SQD1 and Roland MC-50, and the limited amount ofsampling that was featured in this early style was accomplished using anAkai S900.^[172]

By the mid-1990s TR-808 and TR-909 drum machines had already achieved legendary status, a fact reflected in the prices sought for used devices. During the 1980s, the 808 became the staple beat machine inHip hop production while the 909 found its home in House music and techno. It was "the pioneers of Detroit techno [who] were making the 909 the rhythmic basis of their sound, and setting the stage for the rise of Roland's vintage Rhythm Composer." In November 1995 the UK music technology magazineSound on Sound noted:^[173]

There can be few hi-tech instruments which still command a second-hand price only slightly lower than their original selling price 10 years after their launch. Roland's now near-legendary TR-909 is such an example—released in 1984 with a retail price of £999, they now fetch up to £900 on the second-hand market! The irony of the situation is that barely a year after its launch, the 909 was being 'chopped out' by hi-tech dealers for around £375, to make way for the then-new TR-707 and TR-727. Prices hit a new low around 1988, when you could often pick up a second-user 909 for under £200—and occasionally even under £100. Musicians all over the country are now garrotting themselves with MIDI leads as they remember that 909 they sneered at for £100—or worse, the one they sold for £50 (did you ever hear the one about the guy who gave away his TB-303 Bassline—now worth anything up to £900 from true loony collectors—because he couldn't sell it?)

By May 1996,Sound on Sound was reporting that the popularity of the 808 had started to decline, with the rarer TR-909 taking its place as "the dance floor drum machine to use." This is thought to have arisen for a number of reasons: the 909 gives more control over the drum sounds, has better programming and includes MIDI as standard.Sound on Sound reported that the 909 was selling for between £900 and £1100 and noted that the 808 was still collectible, but maximum prices had peaked at about £700 to £800.^[174] Despite this fascination with retro music technology, according to Derrick May "there is no recipe, there is no keyboard or drum machine which makes the best techno, or whatever you want to call it. There never has been. It was down to the preferences of a few guys. The 808 was our preference. We were using Yamaha drum machines, different percussion machines, whatever."^[171]

In the latter half of the 1990s the demand for vintage drum machines and synthesizers motivated a number of software companies to produce computer-based emulators. One of the most notable was theReBirth RB-338, produced by the Swedish companyPropellerhead and originally released in May 1997.^[175] Version one of the software featured two TB-303s and a TR-808 only, but the release of version two saw the inclusion of a TR-909. ASound on Sound review of the RB-338 V2 in November 1998 noted that Rebirth had been called "the ultimate techno software package" and mentions that it was "a considerable software success story of 1997".^[176] In AmericaKeyboard Magazine asserted that ReBirth had "opened up a whole newparadigm: modeled analog synthesizer tones, percussion synthesis, pattern-based sequencing, all integrated in one piece of software".^[177] Despite the success of ReBirth RB-338, it was officially taken out of production in September 2005. Propellerhead then made it freely available for download from a website called the "ReBirth Museum". The site also features extensive information about the software's history and development.^[178]

In 2001, Propellerhead releasedReason V1, a software-based electronic music studio, comprising a 14-input automated digital mixer, 99-note polyphonic 'analogue' synth, classic Roland-style drum machine, sample-playback unit, analogue-style step sequencer, loop player, multitrack sequencer, eight effects processors, and over 500 MB of synthesizer patches and samples. With this release Propellerhead were credited with "creating a buzz that only happens when a product has really tapped into thezeitgeist, and may just be the one that many [were] waiting for."^[179] Reason is as of 2018 at version 10.^[180]

During the mid-to-late 1990s, as computer technology became more accessible andmusic software advanced, interacting with music production technology was possible using means that bore little relationship to traditionalmusical performance practices:^[181] for instance,laptop performance (laptronica)^[182] andlive coding.^[183][184]By the mid-2000s a number of software-based virtual studio environments had emerged, with products such as Propellerhead'sReason andAbleton Live finding popular appeal.^[185] Also during this period software versions of classic devices, that once existed exclusively in the hardware domain, became available for the first time. These software-based music production tools offered viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to continued advances inmicroprocessor technology, it became possible to create high quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Using highly configurable software tools artists could also easily tailor their production sound by creating personalized software synthesizers, effects modules, and various composition environments. Some of the more popular programs for achieving such ends included commercial releases such asMax/Msp andReaktor andfreeware packages such asPure Data,SuperCollider, andChucK. In a certain sense this technological innovation lead to the resurgence of theDIY mentality that was once central to dance music culture.^{[186][187][188][189]} In the 00s these advances democratized music creation and lead to a significant increase in the amount of home-produced music available to the general public via the internet.^[190]

In Germany, noted techno clubs of the 1990s include Tresor and E-Werk in Berlin, Omen and Dorian Gray in Frankfurt,Ultraschall andKW – Das Heizkraftwerk in Munich as well as Stammheim in Kassel.^[191] In 2007,Berghain was cited as "possibly the current world capital of techno, much as E-Werk or Tresor were in their respective heydays".^[192] In the 2010s, aside from Berlin, Germany continued to have a thriving techno scene with clubs such asGewölbe inCologne,Institut für Zukunft inLeipzig,MMA Club andBlitz Club in Munich,Die Rakete inNuremberg andRobert Johnson inOffenbach am Main.^[193][194]

In the United Kingdom, Glasgow'sSub Club has been associated with techno since the early 1990s and clubs such as London'sFabric andEgg London have gained notoriety for supporting techno.^[195] In the 2010s, a techno scene also emerged in Georgia, with theBassiani in Tbilisi being the most notable venue.^[196]

• Detroit Electronic Music Archive

• Techno Live Sets – The #1 resource for Techno sets
• "From the Autobahn to I-94: The Origins of Detroit Techno and Chicago House"Archived 2016-01-28 at theWayback Machine – reminiscences in 2005 by techno and house innovators
• Sounds Like Techno – online historical documentary produced by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)
• Techno from past years – Oldie but goldie classic techno sets