Tamilakam (Tamil:தமிழகம்,romanized: Tamiḻakam), also known asancient Tamil country, as was the geographical region inhabited by the ancientTamil people, covers the southernmost region of theIndian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today'sTamil Nadu,Kerala,Puducherry,Lakshadweep and southern parts ofAndhra Pradesh andKarnataka.^[1] Traditional accounts and theTolkāppiyam referred to these territories as a single cultural area, whereTamil was the natural language^{[note 1]} and permeated the culture of all its inhabitants.^{[note 2]} The ancient Tamil country was divided into kingdoms. The best known among them were theCheras,Cholas,Pandyans andPallavas. During theSangam period, Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam.^[4] Ancient Tamil settlements were also established inSri Lanka (Sri Lankan Tamils) and theMaldives (Giravarus).

During the Prehistorical, Classical, Middle and Early Modern ages, the entire region of Tamilakam mostly remained unconquered by the NorthernIndo-Aryan dynasties, ranging from theMaurya Empire^[5] to theMughal Empire.^{[citation needed]}

In contemporary India, Tamil politicians and orators often use the nameTamilakam to refer to Tamil Nadu alone.

"Tamiḻakam" (தமிழகம்) is a combination of a word and suffix from theTamil language, namelyTamiḻ (தமிழ்) and -akam (-அகம்). It can be roughly translated as the "home ofTamil". According toKamil Zvelebil, the term seems to be the most ancient term used to designate Tamil territory in the Indian subcontinent.^[6]

ThePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, as well asPtolemy's writings, mention the term "Limyrike" which corresponds to theMalabar Coast of south-western India. The Roman mapTabula Peutingeriana includes a place named "Damirica" (or "Damirice") and because this sounds like "Tamil," some modern scholars have equated it with Limyrike, considering both to be synonyms of "Tamilakam". However, the "Damirice" mentioned in theTabula Peutingeriana actually refers to an area between theHimalayas and theGanges.^[7]

The term "Tamilakam" appears to be the most ancient term used for designating the Tamil territory. The earliest sources to mention it includePurananuru 168.18 andPatiṟṟuppattuPatikam 2.5.^[6][8] The Specific Preface (cirappuppayiram) of the more ancient textTolkāppiyam mentions the termstamil-kuru nal-lulakam ("the beautiful world [where] Tamil is spoken") andcentamil ... nilam ("the territory ... of refined Tamil"). However, this preface, which is of uncertain date, is definitely a later addition to the originalTolkāppiyam.^[9] According to theTolkāppiyam preface, "the virtuous land in which Tamil is spoken as the mother tongue lies between the northernVenkata hill and the southernKumari."^[10]

TheSilappadikaram (c. 2nd century CE) defines the Tamilakam as follows:[11]

The Tamil region extends from the hills of Vishnu [Tirupati] in the north to the oceans at the cape in the south. In this region of cool waters were the four great cities of:Madurai with its towers;Uraiyur which was famous; tumultuousKanchi; andPuhar with the roaring waters [of the Kaveri and the ocean].

While these ancient texts do not clearly define the eastern and western boundaries of the Tamilakam, scholars assume that these boundaries were the seas, which may explain their omission from the ancient definition.^[12] The ancient Tamilakam thus included the present-dayKerala.^[10] However, it excluded the present-day Tamil-inhabited territory in theNorth-East ofSri Lanka.^[13]

From around 600 BCE to 300 CE,^[14] Tamiḻakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties: theChola dynasty, thePandyan dynasty and theChera dynasty. There were also a few independent chieftains, theVelirs (Satyaputra). The earliest datable references to the Tamil kingdoms are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE during the time of the Maurya Empire.

The Chola dynasty ruled from before the Sangam period (~3rd century BCE) until the 13th century in central Tamil Nadu. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of theKaveri. The Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of South India until the late 17th century. The heartland of the Pandyas was the fertile valley of theVaigai River. They initially ruled their country fromKorkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved toMadurai. The Chera dynasty ruled from before the Sangam period (~3rd century) until the 12th century over an area corresponding to modern-day westernTamil Nadu andKerala.

The Vealirs (Vēḷir) were minor dynastic kings and aristocratic chieftains in Tamiḻakam in the early historic period ofSouth India.^[15][16]

Tamiḻakam was divided into political regions calledPerunadu or "Great country" ("nadu" means country).^[1]

There were three important political regions which wereChera Nadu,^[17][18][19]Chola Nadu andPandya Nadu.^[1] Alongside these three, there were two more political regions of Athiyaman Nadu (Sathyaputha) and Thamirabharani Nadu (Then Paandi) which were later on absorbed into Chera and Pandya Nadu by 3rd century BCE.Tondai Nadu which was under Chola Nadu, later emerged as independent Pallava Nadu by 6th century CE.

Tamilakam was also divided into 13 socio-geographical regions calledNadu or "country", each of which had their own dialect of Tamil.^[20]

Some otherNadus are also mentioned in Tamil literature which were not part of Tamilakam, but the countries traded with them in ancient times.

The Tamil kingdoms of southern India—including theChola,Pandya, andChera dynasties—were referred to by various names in European historical sources from classical antiquity through the early modern period. These references appear primarily in Greek and Roman geographical works, medieval travel accounts, and early modern colonial records. The names used were typically transliterations of local Tamil terms or adaptations into Greek and Latin phonetic systems.^[29][30]

Classical antiquity (Greek and Roman sources)Greek and Roman authors from approximately the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE described the Tamil kingdoms as part of the broader region known as India, but also referred to specific kingdoms and regions by distinct names.^[31]

Regional names

The Tamil-speaking region, known locally asTamilakam, was referred to by several names in Greco-Roman geography, including:Damirica (Damirice or Dimirice) – widely believed to be a transliteration of "Tamilakam".^[32]Limyrike (Limyrica) – used primarily to describe the southwestern coast of India, associated with the Chera kingdom.^[30]These names appear in works such as thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) and theGeographia ofPtolemy (2nd century CE).^[30][32]

Pandya kingdomThe Pandya kingdom was referred to as:PandionPandaeaGreek and Roman writers often used "Pandion" as a dynastic title rather than a personal name.^[29] The Pandya kingdom is mentioned in the works ofMegasthenes,Strabo,Pliny the Elder, andPtolemy.^[33]Megasthenes described the kingdom of Pandaea as occupying the southernmost part of India and ruled by a hereditary dynasty.^[34]Pliny the Elder also referred to the Pandya kingdom and its trade relations with Rome.^[35]

Chola kingdomThe Chola kingdom was identified in classical sources under names such as:CholaeColchiSoraeThese names appear in Ptolemy’s geographical accounts.^[32] The Chola territory was noted for its coastal ports and maritime trade networks.^[31]The port ofKaberis Emporion, identified withKaveripattinam, was mentioned as a major trading center.^[30]

Chera kingdomThe Chera rulers were referred to by names including:CerobothraKerobothraThese terms appear in Greco-Roman texts and are believed to represent transliterations of Chera royal titles.^[29]The Chera kingdom controlled important ports along the Malabar Coast, includingMuziris, a major center of Indo-Roman trade described in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea.^[30]Archaeological discoveries of Roman coins and amphorae in Kerala and Tamil Nadu confirm extensive trade between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire.^[36]

Medieval European referencesDuring the medieval period, European knowledge of southern India was transmitted largely through Arab intermediaries and travel accounts.^[37]

MaabarThe Tamil region, particularly the Pandya kingdom, was referred to asMaabar (or Mabbar).^[38]Marco Polo described Maabar as a wealthy kingdom known for pearls and maritime trade.^[39]

Coromandel CoastThe eastern coast of Tamil Nadu came to be known as the 'Coromandel Coast, derived from the Tamil wordCholamandalam (realm of the Cholas).^[40]This term became widely used by Portuguese, Dutch, and British traders from the 16th century onward.^[41]

Early modern European usage

With the arrival of European colonial powers, references to Tamil regions became more standardized. Common names included:Coromandel Coast,Malabar Coast,Kingdom of Tanjore,Carnatic.These names appear frequently in European administrative and trade records from the 16th to 18th centuries.^[41]

Significance in European accountsEuropean sources consistently described the Tamil kingdoms as independent political entities and important centers of maritime trade.^[29]They were known for exporting:

1. Pearls
2. Pepper
3. Textiles
4. Ivory
5. Precious stones^[30]

Archaeological evidence, including Roman coin hoards found in Tamil Nadu, supports the existence of extensive trade relations between the Tamil kingdoms and the Roman Empire.^[42]

Although the area covered by the term "Tamilakam" was divided among multiple kingdoms, its occurrence in the ancient literature implies that the region's inhabitants shared a cultural or ethnic identity, or at least regarded themselves as distinct from their neighbours.^[43] The ancient Tamil inscriptions, ranging from 5th century BCE to 3rd century CE, are also considered as linguistic evidence for distinguishing Tamilakam from the rest of South India.^[44] The ancient non-Tamil inscriptions, such as those of the northern kingsAshoka andKharavela, also allude to the distinct identity of the region. For example, Ashoka's inscriptions refer to the independent states lying beyond the southern boundary of his kingdom, and Kharavela'sHathigumpha inscription refers to the destruction of a "confederacy of Tamil powers".^[45]

During the protohistoric period (1000-500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India,^[46] and shared the same megalithic burials,pottery, iron technology, farming techniques andmegalithic graffiti.^[47][48] This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as theVelir, prior to the migration ofPrakrit speakers.^[49][50][47] TheAnnaicoddai seal, dated to the 3rd century BCE, contains a bilingual inscription inTamil-Brahmi.^{[note 3][52][53][54][51]} Excavations in the area ofTissamaharama in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins produced between the second century BCE and the second century CE, some of which carry Tamil personal names written in early Tamil letters,^[55] which suggest that Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period.^[56] Around 237 BCE, "two adventurers from southern India"^[57] took control of the Anuradhapura kingdom. In 145 BCE Elara, a Chola general^[57] or prince known asEllāḷaṉ^{[58][non-primary source needed]} took over the throne atAnuradhapura and ruled for forty-four years.^[57]Dutugamunu, aSinhalese, started a war against him, defeated him, and took over the throne.^[57][59] Tamil Kings have been dated in Sri Lanka to at least the 3rd century BCE.^[60][61]

Hinduism (Vaishnavism,Kaumaram,Shaktism,Shaivism,^[62]),Dravidian folk religion,Jains andBuddhists have coexisted in Tamil country since at least the second century BCE.^[63]

Theeconomy of the ancient Tamil country (Sangam era: 600 BCE – 300 CE) describes the ancient economy of a region insouthern India that mostly covers the present-day states ofTamil Nadu andKerala. The main economic activities were agriculture, weaving,pearl fishery, manufacturing and construction.Paddy was the most important crop; it was the staple cereal and served as a medium of exchange for inland trade.Pepper,sugarcane,millets, and various othercereals were other commonly grown crops.Madurai andUrayur were important centers for thetextile industry;Korkai was the center of the pearl trade. Industrial activity flourished.

During theSangam age, 700 BCE – 100 CE, agriculture was the main vocation of theTamil.^[64] It was considered a necessity for life, and hence was treated as the foremost among all occupations. The farmers or theUlavar were placed right at the top of the social classification. As they were the producers of food grains, they lived with self-respect. Agriculture during the early stages of Sangam period was primitive,^[64] but it progressively got more efficient with improvements in irrigation, ploughing, manuring, storage and distribution.The ancient Tamils were aware of the different varieties of soil, the kinds of crops that can be grown on them and the various irrigation schemes suitable for a given region. These were also in Madras, Thanjore (now as Chennai, Thanjavur respectively).

During the Sangam age, industrial activity was considered ancillary to agriculture and was mostly domestic, not factory-based. Simple workshops where the blacksmith made the wheel or the carpenter his wooden wares could be called factories of a sort. Weaving, pearl fishing, smithy and ship building were some of the prominent industries of the ancient Tamil country. Cotton and silk fabrics from Madurai and Urayur were in great demand; the textiles from these regions were well known for their high quality. Korkai was the center of pearl trade and produced pearls that were sought after not only in Tamilakam, but in the kingdoms of north India and Rome. Smithy was an essential industry, because the blacksmith manufactured many of the tools and objects used in daily life. The flourishing overseas trade was supported by the shipbuilding industry that produced a variety of ocean and river craft. There were several ancillary industries such as carpentry, fishing, salt manufacture and construction that supported the trade and economic activity of this age.

• Sources of ancient Tamil history
• Chronology of Tamil history
• History of Tamil Nadu
• History of Kerala

• Tamilakam
• Ancient Tamil Nadu
• Ancient Indian geography
• 1st-millennium BC establishments in India
• Regions of Asia
• Regions of Karnataka
• Historical Indian regions

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