TheSpanish Army (Spanish:Ejército de Tierra,lit. 'Army of Land') is the terrestrial army of theSpanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldestactive armies – dating back to the late 15th century.

Spanish Army
Ejército de Tierra
Emblem of the Spanish Army
Founded	15th century
Country	Spain
Type	Army
Role	Land force
Size	85,978 personnel (2022)[1]
Part of	Spanish Armed Forces
Garrison/HQ	Buenavista Palace,Madrid
Mascot(s)	Crowned rampant eagle with Saint James cross
Commanders
Commander in Chief	King Felipe VI
Chief of Staff of the Army	Army GeneralAmador Fernando Enseñat y Berea[2]
Insignia
Flag patch
Aircraft flown
Attack helicopter	Tiger
Reconnaissance	Airbus EC-665 Tiger
Trainer	Colibrí EC135
Transport	Chinook Cougar NH90

The Spanish Army has existed continuously since the reign ofKing Ferdinand andQueen Isabella (late 15th century). The oldest and largest of the three services, its mission was the defence ofPeninsular Spain, theBalearic Islands, theCanary Islands,Melilla,Ceuta and the Spanish islands and rocks off the northern coast of Africa.

During the 16th century,Habsburg Spain saw steady growth in its military power. TheItalian Wars (1494–1559) resulted in an ultimate Spanish victory and hegemony in northernItaly by expelling the French. During the war, the Spanish Army transformed its organization and tactics, evolving from a primarilypike andhalberd wielding force into the firstpike and shot formation ofarquebusiers andpikemen. During the 16th century, this formation evolved into thetercio infantry formation.

Backed by the financial resources drawn from theAmericas,^[3] Spain fought wars against its enemies, such as the long-runningDutch Revolt (1568–1609), defending ChristianEurope fromOttoman raids and invasions, supporting theCatholic cause in theFrench civil wars and fightingEngland during theAnglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish Army grew in size from around 20,000 troops in the 1470s to around 300,000 troops by the 1630s during theThirty Years' War that tore Europe apart, requiring the recruitment of soldiers from across Europe.^[4] With such numbers involved, Spain had trouble funding the war effort on so many fronts. The non-payment of troops led to many mutinies and events such as theSack of Antwerp (1576), in which 17,000 people died.^[5]

The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) drew in Spain alongside most other European states. Spain entered the conflict with a strong position, but the ongoing fighting gradually eroded her advantages; first Dutch, then Swedish innovations had made thetercio more vulnerable, having less flexibility andfirepower than its more modern equivalents.^[6] Nevertheless, Spanish armies continued to win major battles and sieges throughout this period across large swathes of Europe. French entry into the war in 1635 put additional pressure on Spain, with the French victory at theBattle of Rocroi in 1643 being a major boost for the French. By the signing of thePeace of Westphalia in 1648, Spain was forced to accept the independence of theDutch Republic.

Spain remained an important naval and military power, depending on criticalsea lanes stretching from Spain through theCaribbean andSouth America, and westwards towardsManila and theFar East.

The Army was reorganized on the French model and in 1704 the oldTercios were transformed intoRegiments. The first modern military school (the Artillery School) was created inSegovia in 1764. Finally, in 1768 KingCharles III sanctioned the "Royal Ordinances for the Regime, Discipline, Subordination, and Service in His Armies", which were in force until 1978.^[7]

In the late 18th century,Bourbon-ruled Spain had an alliance with Bourbon-ruledFrance and therefore did not have to fear a land war. Its only serious enemy was Britain, which had a powerfulRoyal Navy; Spain, therefore, concentrated its resources on itsNavy. When theFrench Revolution overthrew the Bourbons, a land war with France became a danger which the king tried to avoid.

In Spanish Army the officer corps was selected primarily on the basis of royal patronage, rather than merit. About a third of the junior officers had been promoted from the ranks, and they did have talent, but they had few opportunities for promotion or leadership. The rank-and-file were poorly trained peasants. Elite units included foreign regiments ofIrishmen,Italians,Swiss, andWalloons, in addition to elite artillery andengineering units. In combat, small units fought well, but their old-fashioned tactics were hard to use against the FrenchGrande Armée, despite repeated desperate efforts at last-minute reform.^[8]

In 1808, Napoleon tried to deposeCarlos IV of Spain and install his brotherJoseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne, sparking thePeninsular War. Initially, there was little resistance and Spain was occupied. Soon, however, Spanish units began to reorganize and set upguerrilla warfare, culminating in a Spanish victory at theBattle of Bailén within the first two months of the war. The defeated French evacuated the peninsula all the way to theEbro valley near thePyrenees, suffering many humiliating defeats against the regular Spanish Army. They were among the first sound defeats of the hitherto seemingly unbeatableImperial French Army, forcing Napoleon to intervene personally with massive forces, but also sparked theWar of the Fifth Coalition, as other European powers, led byAustria, were encouraged to declare war on France. The situation steadily worsened for the French although Napoleon brought more effective troops into the peninsula, asthe guerrilla insurgents increasingly took control of Spain's battle against Napoleon and created a more or less unified undergroundnational resistance, for whichtraditional armies of the time were not organized or prepared for yet.^[9] By 1812, however, the army controlled only scattered enclaves, and could only harass the French with occasional raids.^[10] Fortunately for the Spanish, the disastrousFrench invasion of Russia severely weakened the French Army and forced Napoleon to cut troop concentrations in Spain, ultimately allowing the Army, militia and their British allies to drive the French out of Spain by 1814.

The Spanish Army emerged from theNapoleonic Wars devastated as a result of years of destructive conflict during the Peninsular War.^[11] Aseries of conflicts inSpain's American colonies with the aim of political independence from theSpanish Empire, which had broken out in 1808, led to the loss of a majority of these colonial possessions by 1833.^[12] During these conflicts, numerous armies from Spain were dispatched to Spanish America in order to defeat theLatin American revolutionaries; these efforts proved mostly unsuccessful. Combined with disturbances in Spain against theSpanish government, Spain's military strength suffered further during the post-Napoleonic era of the early 19th century. Recognizing the need to reform the Spanish Army, reforms were passed by the government of Spain during this period to reform and modernize the armed forces into a professionalstanding army; as part of these reforms,conscription was adopted by the Spanish Army. This grew the size of the Army to 250,000 in 1828, and it increased in 1830 to 300,000 soldiers. This therefore made the Spanish Army a relatively strong Army in Europe, though internal conflicts did affect the Army, forcing them to chose sides.^{[citation needed]}

Spain faced a series of internal dynastic conflicts, collectively known as theCarlist Wars (1833–1876), during the 19th century; these conflicts led the Spanish state to undergo a series of reforms directed at its military, administrative, and social structures.^[13] As consequence of the Carlist Wars, and the weakness of the central structures of government under theSpanish monarchy, many generals with political ambitions stagedcoup d'états, known aspronunciamientos, which continued to occur untilBourbon Restoration in Spain underKing Alfonso XII. These military interventions against the civil government eventually shaped a permissive cultural and political mentality, with a tacit expectation in Spain of "special emergency interventions" from the military that would pervade well into the first third of the 20th century.^[14] In 1920, the Spanish Army was composed of roughly 500,000 men, many of whom would participate in theSpanish Civil War (1936–1939).^{[citation needed]}

During theSecond Spanish Republic, the Spanish government enlisted over ten million men to the army.

Some US citizens came to Spain to fight in their civil war for two main reasons. The first being to promote their ideals and the other being to escape the trials of living in North America during the great depression.

The Americans totaled 2,800 and suffered heavy casualties: 900 killed and 1,500 wounded. The war ended in April-May 1939.

This period can be divided in four phases:^[15]

• 1939–1945:Second World War
• 1945–1954: International Isolation (lack of means)
• 1954–1961: Agreement with the United States (a certain improvement in means and capabilities)
• 1961–1975: Development plans (economic basis for the modernisations that follows in the 1970s and 1980s).

At the end of the Civil War, theFrancoist (Nationalist) Army counted 1,020,500 men, in 60 divisions.^[16] During the first year of peace, Franco dramatically reduced the size of the Spanish Army to 250,000 in early 1940, with most soldiers two-year conscripts.^[17]In October 1940, the Army had sixteen line infantry divisions; three mountain divisions; one cavalry division; and five divisions inSpanish Morocco (IX Army Corps and X Army Corps), for a total of twenty-five. Other units included, in addition to those of the army corps in each captaincy: four tank regiments; field artillery, coastal and anti-aircraft regiments; regiments of different engineering specialties; the garrisons of the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, Ceuta and Melilla, Ifni-Sahara, and the naval bases; and more than one hundred workers' battalions.

A few weeks after the end of the war, theeight traditional Military Regions (Madrid, Sevilla, Valencia, Barcelona, Zaragoza, Burgos, Valladolid, and theVIII Military Region at La Coruña) were reestablished. In 1944 theIX Military Region, with its headquarters in Granada, was created.^[16] TheAir Force became an independent service, under its ownMinistry of the Air.

Concerns about the international situation, Spain's possible entry into the Second World War, and threats of invasion led Franco to undo some of these reductions. In November 1942, with theAllied landings in North Africa and the German occupation ofVichy France bringing hostilities closer than ever to Spain's border, Franco ordered a partial mobilization, bringing the army to over 750,000 men.^[17] TheAir Force andNavy also grew in numbers and in budgets, to 35,000 airmen and 25,000 sailors by 1945, although for fiscal reasons Franco had to restrain attempts by both services to undertake dramatic expansions.^[17]

During the Second World War, the Army in metropolitan Spain had eight Army Corps, with two or three Infantry Divisions each.^[18] Additionally, theArmy of Africa had two Army Corps in Northern Africa, and there were the Canary Islands General Command and the Balearic Islands General Command, one Cavalry Division, plus the Artillery's General Reserve. In 1940 a Reserve Group, with three Divisions, was created.^[16]

Although SpanishcaudilloFrancisco Franco was neutral and did not bringSpain intoWorld War II on the side ofNazi Germany, he permitted volunteers to join theGerman Army (Wehrmacht) on the condition they would only fight against theSoviet Union on theEastern Front, and not against theWestern Allies or anyWestern European occupied populations. In this manner, he could keep Spain at peace with the Western Allies, while repaying German support during theSpanish Civil War and providing an outlet for the strong anti-Communist sentiments of many Spanish nationalists. Officially designated asDivisión Española de Voluntarios by theSpanish Army and as250 Infanterie-Division in theGerman Army, the Blue Division was the only component of the German Army to be awardeda medal of their own, commissioned by Hitler in January 1944 after the Division had demonstrated its effectiveness in impeding the advance of theRed Army, on theVolkhov front (October 1941 – August 1942) and in thesiege of Leningrad (August 1942 – October 1943), mainly at thebattle of Krasny Bor.^[19]

At the end of the Second World War, the Spanish Army counted 22,000 officers, 3,000 NCO and almost 300,000 soldiers. The equipment dated from the Civil War, with some systems produced in Germany during the World War. Their doctrines and training were obsolete, as they had not incorporated the teachings of the Second World War; Scianna elaborates on the weaknesses of equipment, political role, and worldview.^[20] This situation lasted until the agreements with the United States in September 1953.^[15]

After the signing of themilitary agreement with the United States in 1953, the assistance received from Washington allowed Spain to procure more modern equipment and to improve the country's defence capabilities. More than 200 Spanish officers and NCOs received specialised training in the United States each year. With the Barroso Reform (1957), the Spanish Army abandoned the organisation inherited from the Civil War to adopt the United States'pentomic structure.General Instruction 158/107 of 1958 led to the raising of three experimental infantry divisions (DIE 11 at Madrid, DIE "Guzman el Bueno" 21 at Algeciras, and DIE 31 at Valencia).^[21] Instruction 160/115 of January 15, 1960 extended these changes to another five transformation divisions (DIT, at Gerona, Málaga, Oviedo, Vigo, Vitoria, respectively) and the four mountain divisions (divisións de infantería de montaña, DIM).^[22] Most of the heavy divisions had five manoeuvreagrupaciones based on two to three regiments and support formations, while the Mountain Divisions "Urgel" 42, 51, 52, and "Navarra" 62 had sixbatallón de cazadores de montaña anchored on two to three regiments, an independent company, and what appears to be a battalion of motorised infantry.^[23]

Theoretically, these divisions were divided between three corps that would have reached across the boundaries of the Captaincies General if they had been formed:^[24]

• Army Corps 1 (Madrid): DIE 11, DIE 61, DIT 71, DIT 81;
• Army Corps 2 (Seville): DIE 21, DIE 31, DIT 41, DIT 91;
• Army Corps 3 (Zaragoza): DIM 42, DIM 51, DIM 52, DIM 62.

All in all, after the Barroso Reform, the Spanish Army had eight Pentomic infantry divisions, four mountain divisions,Armoured Division No. 1 "Brunete", the "Jarama" Cavalry Division, organized into a division HQ and four armoured groups ("agrupaciones blindadas"), three independent Armoured Brigades at rather reduced strength, and three Field Artillery Brigades ("Brigada de artillería de campaña") with assigned artillery groups.^[15]

The 1965 Reforms were inspired by then-contemporary French organisation and doctrine.Camilo Menéndez Tolosa's reforms from 1965 divided the Army into two categories: the Immediate Intervention Forces (FII, Field Army) and the Defensa Operativa del Territorio (DOT, Operational Territorial Defence (Territorial Army)) territorial forces.

The FII had the mission of defending the Pyrenean and the Gibraltar frontiers and of fulfilling Spain's security commitments abroad. It was to be "an army corps equipped and trained for conventional and limited nuclear warfare, ready to be deployed within or outside national borders."^[25] It was made up of:

• Armoured Division No. 1 "Brunete", with two armoured Brigades;
• Mechanised Infantry Division "Guzmán el Bueno" No. 2, with Mechanised Infantry Brigade XXI (BRIMZ XXI) atCordoba,^[26] and Motorised Infantry Brigade XXII (BRIMT XXII) atJerez;^[27]
• Motorised Division "Maestrazgo" No. 3 with its headquarters inValencia and two brigades;
• Parachute Brigade (raised 1973)
• Air-Transportable Brigade
• Armoured Cavalry Brigade
• Army Corps support units

The DOT was to maintain security in the regional commands and of reinforce theCivil Guard and the police against subversion and terrorism. It comprised nine independent Infantry Brigades (one in every one of theMilitary Regions of Spain), organized with a brigade HQ and two infantry battalions each; theMountain Infantry Division No. 4 "Urgell"^[28] andMountain Infantry Division No. 6 "Navarra";^[27] the Mountain Reserve of the Army High Command; the Canary Islands, Balearic Islands, Ceuta and Melilla commands, with their respective DOT units including theRegulares (six groups later reduced to four) and the Spanish Legion (4 Tercios); and the Army General Reserve Command, composed of DOT units working as the reserve force of the Army, the equivalent to the United States Army Reserve.^[15]

During the last years of the Francoist regime, contemporary weapons and vehicles were ordered for the Army. In 1973, the military education system was reformed in depth, in order to make its structure and objectives similar to those existing in the civilian universities. It was during this time that the Spanish Army fought in the campaigns in what is nowWestern Sahara against Arab forces in the area who agitated for the end of Spanish colonial rule.

Three main events characterise this period: creation of a singleMinistry of Defence (1977) to replace the three existing military ministries (Army,Navy andAir Ministries), the failedcoup d'état in February 1981 and the accession toNATO in 1982.

TheModernización del Ejército de Tierra (META) plan was carried out from 1982 to 1988 so that Spain could achieve full compliance with NATO standards.^[29] Military regions in mainland Spain were reduced from nine to six; the Intervention Force (FII) and the Territorial Defence (DOT) were merged; the number of brigades was reduced from 24 to 15; and personnel numbers cut from 279,000 to 230,000.

The end of theCold War meant the disappearance of the Eastern Bloc threat. The reduction of the term of military service for conscripts until its complete abolition in 2001^[30] and the increasing participation of Spanish forces in multinational peacekeeping operations abroad^[31] were the main drivers for changes in the army after 1989.

Three reorganisation plans have been implemented since. The first was the RETO plan (1990).^[32] In 1994, Plan NORTE was published, which was implemented between 1995 and 1999. NORTE eliminated four of the five existing divisions, leaving the Army composed of the Permanent Force and the Mobilizable Reserve.^[33] The Permanent Force included a mechanized division of three brigades, a cavalry brigade, a parachute brigade, a light airborne brigade, a Legion brigade, a mountain hunter brigade, the garrison forces of the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, Ceuta and Melilla, and other support elements. The now "Manoeuvre Force", located in the old Captaincy of Valencia, was reduced to an army corps equivalent of a complete heavy division and the equivalent of a light division with reduced support. The Mobilizable Reserve included three mobilizable infantry brigades, a mobilizable cavalry brigade and other support units. The captaincies general finally disappeared, being replaced by regional commands. The third plan was the Instruction for Organisation and Operation of the Army (IOFET) 2005.

In 2001, when compulsory military service was still in effect, the army was about 135,000 troops (50,000 officers and 86,000 soldiers). Following the suspension of conscription the Spanish Army became a fully professionalised volunteer force and by 2008 had a personnel strength of 75,000.^[34] In case of a war or national emergency, an additional force of 80,000Civil Guards comes under the Ministry of Defence command

• URO VAMTAC, all terrain 4x4 tactical vehicle (more than 1,500)
• Santana Anibal, an all terrain 4x4utility vehicle (more than 1,500)
• Iveco Euro Cargo all terrain utility vehicle
• Volvo FH
• Iveco M250W.37
• VEMPAR tactical heavy lorry 450HP, 20-toncargo lorry

• 41Hidromek HMK102S backhoe loader^[46]
• 5Hidromek HMK 210W wheeled excavator^[47]

• Oerlikon-ContravesGDF-005/007 35/90 35 mmAnti-aircraft artillery piece (67)^[45]
• MIM-23B I-Hawk Phase III - 36^[45]
• RaytheonMIM-104 Patriot(PAC-2) –Surface-to-Air missile system-18-(3 batteries)^[45]
• Skyguard-Aspide – Surface-to-Air missile system (13)^[45]
• NASAMS – Surface-to-Air missile system (8)^[45]
• MBDA SATCPMistral missile – Anti-aircraftinfrared homing missile system (168)^[45]

• 4 xINTA SIVA
• 2 xIAI Searcher MK II J PASI –  Israel^[45]
• 4 xIAI Searcher MK III PASI –  Israel^[45]
• 47 xRQ-11 Raven (mini UAV) –  United States
• 6 x2 Atlantic and 4 Tucan

The rank insignia ofcommissioned officers.

The rank insignia ofnon-commissioned officers andenlisted personnel.

• Army of Spain (Peninsular War)
• FAMET
• Spanish Legion
• Spanish Republican Army
• Coats of Arms, Badges and Emblems of the Spanish Army
• List of military weapons of Spain

• Instruction no. 59/2005, of 4 April 2005, from the chief of the army staff on army organisation and function regulations, published in B.O.D. NO. 80 of 26 April 2005
• Lehardy, Diego,Spanish Army in a difficult phase of its transformation,RID magazine, July 1991.
• Mogaburo López, Fernando (2017).Historia Orgánica De Las Grandes Unidades (1475–2018)(PDF). Madrid: Ministerio de Defensa – Mando de Adiestramiento y Doctrina. Retrieved18 September 2020.
• Scianna, Bastian Matteo (2019)."Stuck in the past? British views on the Spanish army's effectiveness and military culture, 1946–1983".War and Society.38 (1):41–56.doi:10.1080/07292473.2019.1524347.S2CID 159007579. Antiquated material and limited budgets were not the only reasons for the army's low potential wartime capability after World War II. "..Spain continued to field around twenty divisions, whereas the defence industry and available national resources could only sustain six operational divisions. A regular Spanish infantry division could muster full strength with modern infantry weapons, while other ‘teeth’ units – like the artillery and engineers – were reduced to one-third of their ideal levels. The supporting ‘tail’ was so underdeveloped that divisions were statically bound to their home depot and could only defend their military district after six months mobilisation.." [The paper] draws on British and German sources to demonstrate how Spanish military culture prevented an augmented effectiveness and organisational change.

• Home page of the Spanish Land Army(in English)
• Recruitment page(in Spanish)
• The Spanish Military Forum