Pagodas in Japan are calledtō (塔,lit. pagoda), sometimesbuttō (仏塔,lit. Buddhist pagoda) ortōba (塔婆,lit. pagoda), and derive historically from theChinese pagoda, itself an interpretation of the Indianstupa.^[1] Like thestupa, pagodas were originally used asreliquaries, but in many cases ended up losing this function.^[2] Pagodas are quintessentially Buddhist and an important component ofJapanese Buddhist temple compounds but, because until theKami and Buddhas Separation Act of 1868, aShinto shrine was normallyalso a Buddhist temple and vice versa, they are not rare at shrines either. The famousItsukushima Shrine, for example, has one.^[3] After theMeiji Restoration the wordtō, once used exclusively in a religious context, came to mean also "tower" in the western sense, as for example inEiffel Tower (エッフェル塔,Efferu-tō).

Multi-storied pagodas in wood and stone, and agorintō

Of the Japanese pagoda's many forms, some are built in wood and are collectively known asmokutō (木塔,lit. wood pagoda), but most are carved out of stone (sekitō (石塔,lit. stone pagoda). Wood pagodas are large buildings with either two stories (like theTahō pagoda (多宝塔,tahōtō), see photo below) or an odd number of stories. Extant wood pagodas with more than two stories have almost always either three stories (and are therefore calledsanjū-no-tō (三重塔,lit. three-storeyed pagoda)) or five (and are calledgojū-no-tō (五重塔,lit. five-storeyed pagoda). Stone pagodas are nearly always small, usually well below 3 metres, and as a rule offer no usable space. If they have more than one storey, pagodas are calledtasōtō (多層塔,lit. multi-storied pagoda) ortajūtō (多重塔,lit. multi-storied pagoda).

A pagoda's size is measured inken, where aken is the interval between two pillars of a traditional-style building. Atahōtō for example can be either 5x5 ken or 3x3ken.^[4] The word is usually translated in English as "bay" and is better understood as an indication of proportions than as a unit of measurement.

Thestupa was originally a simple mound containing theBuddha's ashes which in time became more elaborate, while its finial grew proportionally larger.^[2] After reaching China, the stupa met the Chinese watchtower and evolved into the pagoda, a tower with an odd number of stories.^{[note 1]} Its use then spread to Korea and, from there, to Japan. Following its arrival in Japan together withBuddhism in the 6th century, the pagoda became one of the focal points of the early Japanesegaran.^{[note 2]} In Japan it evolved in shape, size and function, finally losing its original role as a reliquary.^[5] It also became extremely common, while on the Asian continent it is rare.^[6]

With the birth of new sects in later centuries, the pagoda lost importance and was consequently relegated to the margins of thegaran. Temples of theJōdo sects rarely have a pagoda.^[2] During theKamakura period theZen sect arrived in Japan and their temples do not normally include a pagoda.

Pagodas originally were reliquaries and did not contain sacred images, but in Japan many, for exampleHōryū-ji's five-storied pagoda, enshrine statues of various deities.^[5] To allow the opening of a room at the ground floor and therefore create some usable space, the pagoda's central shaft, which originally reached the ground, was shortened to the upper stories, where it rested on supporting beams.^[5] In that room are enshrined statues of the temple's main objects of worship. InsideShingon pagodas there can be paintings of deities called Shingon Hasso (真言八祖); on the ceiling and on the central shaft there can be decorations and paintings.^[5]

The edge of a pagoda'seaves forms a straight line, with each following edge being shorter than the other. The more difference in length (a parameter calledteigen (逓減,gradual diminution) in Japanese) between stories, the more solid and secure the pagoda seems to be. Bothteigen and thefinial are greater in older pagodas, giving them a sense of solidity.^[5] Vice versa, recent pagodas tend to be steeper and have shorter finials, creating svelter silhouettes.

From the structural point of view, old pagodas had a stone base (心礎,shinso) over which stood the main pillar (心柱,shinbashira). Around it would be erected the first storey's supporting pillars, then the beams supporting the eaves and so on. The other stories would be built over the completed one, and on top of the main pillar would at last be inserted the finial.^[5] In later eras, all of the supporting structures would be erected at once, and later to them were fixed parts of more cosmetic function.^[5]

Early pagodas had a central pillar that penetrated deep into the ground. With the evolution of architectural techniques, it was first put to rest on a base stone at ground level, then it was shortened and put to rest on beams at the second storey to allow the opening of a room.^[2][5]

Their role within the temple declined gradually while they were being functionally replaced bymain halls (kondō). Originally the centerpiece of the Shingon and Tendaigaran, they were moved later to its edges and finally abandoned, in particular by the Zen sects, the last to appear in Japan.

Because of the relics they contained, wooden pagodas used to be the centerpiece of thegaran, the seven edifices considered indispensable for a temple.^[7] They gradually lost importance and were replaced by thekondō (golden hall), because of the magic powers believed to lie within the images the building housed. This loss of status was so complete that Zen schools, which arrived late in Japan from China, normally do not have any pagoda in theirgaran. The layout of four early temples clearly illustrates this trend: they are in chronological orderAsuka-dera,Shitennō-ji,Hōryū-ji, andYakushi-ji.^[7] In the first, the pagoda was at the very center of thegaran surrounded by three smallkondō (see the reconstruction of the temple's original layout). In the second, a singlekondō is at the center of the temple and the pagoda lies in front of it. At Hōryū-ji, they are one next to the other. Yakushi-ji has a single, largekondō at the center with two pagodas on the sides. The same evolution can be observed in Buddhist temples in China.

Stone pagodas (sekitō) are usually made of materials likeapatite orgranite, are much smaller than wooden ones and are finely carved.^[5] Often they bearsanskrit inscriptions, Buddhist figurines and Japanese lunar calendar datesnengō. Like wooden ones, they are mostly classifiable on the basis of the number of stories astasōtō orhōtō, but there are however some styles hardly ever seen in wood, namely thegorintō, themuhōtō, thehōkyōintō and thekasatōba.^[8]

With a few very rare exceptions,tasōtō (also calledtajūtō, 多層塔) have an odd number of stories, normally comprised between three and thirteen.^[9] They are usually less than three meters tall, but they can occasionally be much taller. The tallest still extant is a 13-storey pagoda atHannya-ji inNara, which is 14.12 m. They are often dedicated to Buddha and offer no usable room, but some have a small space inside which holds a sacred image.^[8] In the oldest extant specimen, while the edge of each storey are parallel to the ground, each successive storey is smaller than the next, resulting in a strongly slanted curve. More moderntasōtō tend to have a less pronounced curve.

•   Media related toTasōtō at Wikimedia Commons

Ahōtō (宝塔,lit. jewel stupa) is a pagoda consisting of four parts: a low foundation stone, a cylindrical body with a rounded top, a four-sided roof and afinial.^[10] Unlike the similartahōtō (see section below) it has no enclosed pent roof (mokoshi) around its circular core.^[5] Like thetahōtō it takes its name from Buddhist deityTahō Nyorai. Thehōtō was born during the earlyHeian period, when theTendai andShingon sects first arrived in Japan. Indeed, because it does not exist on the Asian continent, it is believed to have been invented in Japan.^[5]

There used to exist full-sizehōtō, but almost only miniature ones survive, normally made of stone and/or metal.^[10]

•   Media related toHōtō at Wikimedia Commons

Thegorintō (五輪塔,lit. five ring tower) is a pagoda found almost only in Japan and believed to have been first adopted by theShingon andTendai sects during the midHeian period.^[11] It is used as a tomb marker or as a cenotaph, and is therefore a common sight in Buddhist temples and cemeteries. It is also calledgorinsotōba (五輪卒塔婆) ("five-ringed stupa") orgoringedatsu (五輪解脱), where the termsotoba is a transliteration of the Sanskrit wordstupa.^[1]

In all its variations, thegorintō is made of five blocks (although that number can sometimes be difficult to detect), each having one of the five shapes which symbolize of theFive Elements believed to be the basic building blocks of reality: earth (cube), water (sphere), fire (pyramid), air (crescent), and ether, energy, or void (lotus).^[11] The last two rings (air and ether) are visually and conceptually united into a single subgroup.

•   Media related togorintō at Wikimedia Commons

Thehōkyōintō (宝篋印塔) is a large stone pagoda so called because it originally contained the Hōkyōin (宝篋印)dharani (陀羅尼)sūtra.^[1] It was originally used as a cenotaph for the King ofWuyue -Qian Liu in China.^[1]

Thehōkyōintō tradition in Japan is believed to have begun during theAsuka period (550–710 CE).^[12] They used to be made of wood and started to be made in stone only during the Kamakura period.^[12] It is also during this period that they started to be used as tombstones and cenotaphs.^[12] Thehōkyōintō started to be made in its present form during theKamakura period.^[1] Like agorintō, it is divided in five main sections representing the five elements of Japanese cosmology.^[5] The sūtra it sometimes hides contain all the pious deeds of aTathagata Buddha, and the faithful believe that, by praying in front of thehōkyōintō, their sins will be canceled, during their lives they will be protected from disasters and after death they will go to heaven.^[12]

•   Media related toHōkyōintō at Wikimedia Commons

Themuhōtō (無縫塔,lit. no stitch tower) orrantō (卵塔,lit. egg tower) is a pagoda which usually marks the gravesite of a Buddhist priest. It was originally used by just the Zen schools, but it was later adopted by the others too.^[13] Its characteristic egg-shaped upper portion is supposed to be aphallic symbol.

•   Media related toMuhōtō at Wikimedia Commons

Akasatōba (笠塔婆,umbrella stupa) (see photo in the gallery below) is simply a square stone post placed over a square base and covered by a pyramidal roof. Over the roof stand a bowl-shaped stone and a lotus-shaped stone. The shaft can be carved with Sanskrit words or low-relief images of Buddhist gods. Within the shaft there can be stone wheels which allow the faithful to turn the stupa around while praying as with aprayer wheel.^[14]

•   Media related toKasatōba at Wikimedia Commons

Thesōrintō (相輪橖) is a type of small pagoda consisting just of a pole and asōrin.

Woodentasōtō are pagodas with an odd number of stories. Some may appear to have an even number because of the presence between stories of purely decorative enclosed pent roofs calledmokoshi^{[note 3]} A famous example isYakushi-ji's eastern pagoda (see photo to the left), which seems to have six stories but has in fact only three. Another is thetahōtō (see below), which has a single storey, plus amokoshi under its roof, and seems therefore to have two stories.^{[note 4]} There existed specimen with seven or nine stories, but all extant ones have either three (and are therefore calledsanjū-no-tō (三重塔,lit. three-storied pagoda)) or five (and are calledgojū-no-tō (五重塔,lit. five-storied pagoda).^[5]（Tanzan Jinja in Sakurai,Nara, has a pagoda having thirteen, which however for structural reasons is classified separately, and is not considered atasōtō.)^[5] The oldest three-storied pagoda stands at Nara'sHokki-ji and was built between 685 and 706.^[5] The oldest extant five-storied pagoda belongs toHōryū-ji and was built some time during theAsuka period (538–710). The tallest woodentasōtō belongs toTō-ji, Kyoto. It has five stories and is 54 m tall.

•   Media related totasōtō at Wikimedia Commons

A woodenhōtō is a rare type of pagoda consisting of four parts: a low foundation stone, a cylindrical body with a rounded top, a pyramidal roof and afinial.^[10] Unlike the similartahōtō (see section below) it has no square enclosed pent roof (mokoshi) around its cylindrical core.^[5] Like thetahōtō it takes its name from Buddhist deityTahō Nyorai. Thehōtō was born during the earlyHeian period, when theTendai andShingon Buddhist sects first arrived in Japan.

There used to be many full-sizehōtō, but almost only miniature ones survive, normally made of stone and/or metal. A good example of full-sizehōtō can be seen atIkegami Honmon-ji inNishi-magome,Tokyo. The pagoda is 17.4 meter tall and 5.7 meter wide.^[10]

•   Media related toHōtō at Wikimedia Commons

Thetahōtō is a type of wooden pagoda unique for having an even number of stories (two), the first square with a rounded core, the second circular. This style oftō was created surrounding the cylindrical base of ahōtō (see above) with a square, roofed corridor calledmokoshi.^{[note 5][5]} The core of the pagoda has just one storey with its ceiling below the circular second storey, which is inaccessible. Like thetasōtō and therōmon, in spite of its appearance it therefore offers usable space only at the ground floor.^[5]

Because its kind does not exist either in Korea or in China, it is believed to have been invented in Japan during theHeian period (794–1185). Thetahōtō was important enough to be considered one of the seven indispensable buildings (the so-calledshichidō garan) of aShingon temple.^[15]Kūkai himself is responsible for the construction of thetahōto atMount Kōya'sKongōbu-ji.

Usually the base of atahōtō is 3-ken across with four main, supporting pillars calledshitenbashira (四天柱) at the corners (see drawing).^[5] The room theshitenbashira form houses a sanctuary where the main objects of worship (thegohonzon) are enshrined.

Larger, 5x5kentahōtō however exist and are calleddaitō (大塔,lit. large pagoda) because of their dimensions. This is the only type oftahōtō to retain the original structure with a wall separating the corridor (mokoshi) from the core of the structure. This type of pagoda used to be common but, of alldaitō ever built, only three are still extant. One is atWakayama prefecture'sNegoro-ji, another atKongōbu-ji, again in Wakayama, and the last at Kirihata-dera,Tokushima prefecture.^[15] Thedaitō at Kongōbu-ji was founded byShingon sect'sKūkai. The specimen found at Negoro-ji (see photo above) is 30.85 meters tall and aNational Treasure.

•   Media related toDaitō at Wikimedia Commons
•   Media related toTahōtō at Wikimedia Commons

Often offertory strips of wood with five subdivisions and covered with elaborate inscriptions calledsotōba (卒塔婆) can be found at tombs in Japanese cemeteries (see photo in the gallery below).^[5] The inscriptions containsūtra and the posthumous name of the dead person. Their name derives from the Sanskritstūpa, and they can be also considered pagodas.

•   Media related toSotōba at Wikimedia Commons

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  Agorintō
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  Ahōkyōintō
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  Ahōtō
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  A stonetasōtō
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  Twokasatōba at Hannya-ji, Nara
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  Ichijō-ji'ssanjū-no-tō (three storied pagoda). It was built in 1171.
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  Murō-ji'sgojū-no-tō (five storied pagoda). It was built in 800.
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  A pagoda at a Shinto shrine, Itsukushima Shrine
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  Asotōba. Clearly visible is the division in five sections
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  Asorintō

• Shinbashira, the suspended wooden column inside

• IwanamiKōjien (広辞苑) Japanese dictionary, 6th Edition (2008), DVD version
• "JAANUS".Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System. Retrieved19 August 2010.
• Fujita Masaya, Koga Shūsaku, ed. (April 10, 1990).Nihon Kenchiku-shi (in Japanese) (September 30, 2008 ed.). Shōwa-dō.ISBN 4-8122-9805-9.
• Scheid, Bernhard."Japanische Pagoden" (in German). University of Vienna. Retrieved19 August 2010.
• Shinkō no Katachi - HōkyōintōArchived 2021-04-16 at theWayback Machine, Yatsushiro Municipal Museum, accessed on September 18, 2008 (in Japanese)