| Sit-in movement | |||
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| Part of theCivil Rights Movement | |||
.jpg) Student sit-in at Woolworth inDurham, North Carolina on February 10, 1960 | |||
| Date | February 1, 1960 – 1964 | ||
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Thesit-in movement,sit-in campaign, orstudent sit-in movement, was a wave ofsit-ins that followed theGreensboro sit-ins on February 1, 1960, led by students –Ezell Blair Jr.,David Richmond,Franklin McCain, andJoseph McNeil – at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical Institute (A&T).[1] Sit-ins challenging racial segregation had taken place in earlier years as well, including demonstrations in theGreat Plains region in 1958–1960 and other cities prior to Greensboro.[2][3] Even though the Greensboro sit-in was not the first sit-in, it sparked a wave of sit-ins that created the sit-in movement. The sit-in movement employed the tactic ofnonviolentdirect action and was a pivotal event during theCivil Rights Movement.[4]
The sit-in movement took place during the 1960s, but sit-ins were occurring all over America many years before then. The idea for sit-ins first stemmed from the sit-down strikes during thelabor movement.[5] Due to the success of sit-down strikes, similar peaceful protest tactics were used to fight for civil rights. Some of the most influential sit-ins prior to the sit-in movement occurred in Chicago, Illinois in 1943. These sit-ins led by theCongress of Racial Equality (CORE) set a prime example of how sit-ins work and why they are effective.[6]
African-American college students attendinghistorically Black colleges and universities in the United States powered the sit-in movement. Many students in the United States followed their example, as sit-ins provided a powerful tool for students to use to attract attention.[7] While they were often under-recognized, Black women played a significant role in organizing these efforts, particularly atBennett College, where they helped organize sit-ins, plan meetings, and provide guidance to other participants, contributing to the movement's early growth.[4] The students of Baltimore made use of this in 1960 when many used the efforts to desegregate department store restaurants, which proved to be successful lasting about three weeks. This was one small role Baltimore played in the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The city facilitated social movements as it saw bus and taxi companies hiring African Americans in 1951–1952.[8] Sit-ins also frequently occurred in segregated facilities in Oklahoma City between 1958 and 1964.[9]
Students atMorgan State College in Baltimore, Maryland, successfully deployed sit-ins and other direct action protest tactics against lunch counters in the city since 1953. One successful student sit-in occurred in 1955 atRead's Drug Store.[10] Despite also being led by students and successfully resulting in the end of segregation at a store lunch counter, the Read's Drug Store sit-in did not receive the same level of attention that was later given to the Greensboro sit-ins.[11] Two store lunch counter sit-ins, which occurred inWichita, Kansas andOklahoma City, Oklahoma, in 1958, also proved successful and employed tactics similar to those of the future Greensboro sit-ins.[12][13] The local chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality had had similar success. After witnessing the unprecedented amount of visibility that the 1960 sit-ins inGreensboro, North Carolina, gained in the wide-oriented mainstream media, Morgan students (and others, including those from theJohns Hopkins University) continued sit-in campaigns that were already underway at department stores and restaurants near their campus. There were massive amounts of support from the community for the student's efforts, but more importantly, White involvement and support grew in favor of the desegregation of department store restaurants.[14] The students received significant support from the community, and more importantly, White involvement in favor of desegregating department store restaurants grew.
While sit-ins were by far the most prominent in 1960, they continued to be a useful tactic in the civil rights movement in the years that followed. In February 1961, students fromFriendship Junior College in Rock Hill, South Carolina, organized a sit-in at a segregated lunch counter. Internal organization and coordination among student groups were crucial to the success of sit-ins, allowing for effective planning of protests, communication across campuses, and rapid response to incidents of harassment or arrests.[15] The students were then arrested and refused to pay bail. This was part of their "Jail, No Bail" strategy,[16] they instead decided to serve jail time as a demonstration of their commitment to the civil rights movement. This tactic, which sought to drain city resources and highlight the moral justice of arrests, inspired similar actions across the South and drew national attention to local police brutality.[16]
Another example of sit-ins that were a crucial part of the civil rights movement were the Albany, Georgia sit-ins that started in December 1961. In order to advocate for civil rights and desegregate public facilities in Albany, sit-ins, boycotts, and marches were used. TheFreedom Rides of 1961 also played a crucial role, with activists participating in sit-ins at segregated bus terminals across the South to challenge segregation in interstate transportation. This and other strong actions helped propel momentum and eventually helped lead to the removal of segregation laws in the United States.[17]
The sit-ins in Greensboro invigorated U.S. civil rights movements by reinforcing the success of other protests like theMontgomery bus boycott, which had shown how effectively a mass of people could change public opinions and governmental policies.[18]
The sit-in movement was not just about the desegregation of lunch counters. Activists exploded across Southern cities and pressured local courts, forcing judges to rethink policies on public accommodations and the principle of “separate but equal.” Civil rights lawyers exploited such lawsuits to settle the claim that refusal of service in restaurants violates the14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause as standards to lay the groundwork for subsequent desegregation demands.[16] The powerful images of peaceful students facing arrest and violence became national news and encouraged popular sympathy. And it was this mounting public pressure that would be instrumental in the passage of theCivil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed segregation in public places and demonstrated that nonviolent protest could indeed drive real progress.[15]
The sit-in movement was an integral part of the civil rights movement. It provided African Americans with a way to peacefully protest the inequality of rights throughout America. Although sit-ins are primarily remembered as a tactic used throughout the civil rights movement to challenge segregation, sit-ins can be traced back to the "sit-down" strikes during the labor movement. The main goals of the labor movement were better wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions. In order to advocate for their rights, workers would withdraw their labor through strikes. Although effective in some cases, many laborers were fired and replaced or given ultimatums to return to work. Because of the antiunion forces against workers, they developed the idea of the sit-down strike. As sit-down strikes were done by simply sitting down at one's work space and doing no work, employers could not replace the workers. The first successful use of the "sit-down" strike tactic was theFlint sit-down strike. This strike forcedGeneral Motors to recognize theUnited Auto Workers as the sole bargaining unit.[19] Due to the effectiveness of this protest tactic, sit-down strikes continued throughout the labor movement and shifted into other movements such as civil rights.[5]
As a result of the effectiveness of the sit-down strikes during the labor movement, similar peaceful protest tactics were adopted and brought into the civil rights movement. Many civil rights leaders such asMartin Luther King Jr. andBayard Rustin studied the "sit-down" strikes of the labor movement to learn what aspects worked and could be applied to the civil rights movement. Although the sit-in movement took place during 1960, there were many sit-ins that took place before then. Some of the earliest sit-ins that took place during the civil rights movement were in Chicago, Illinois in 1943. TheCongress of Racial Equality (CORE) was founded in Chicago in 1942 by a group of university students. As many public places in Chicago are still segregated despite the Illinois Civil Rights Act of 1885, CORE decided to take action at the diners and restaurants that were known for not serving Black individuals. Their first target was Jack Spratt's Coffee House as Black members of CORE had previously been turned away from dining there. Before the sit-in, attempts were made to make an agreement with the manager of Jack Spratt's but no consensus was reached. The Jack Spratt's sit-in took place on May 14, 1943, at 4:30pm when twenty-eight members of CORE (both Black and White individuals) demanded to be equally served in the dining area. Although it took multiple hours and police enforcement, all parties were served and the restaurant policy was changed. Due to the success of their first sit-in, CORE decided to keep their momentum going and attempt to fight the injustices at another restaurant that was known for its animosity towards African Americans. In June 1943 sixty-eight members of CORE participated in a sit-in at Stoner's Restaurant with the same goals. After pushback from the public and White CORE members, the Black members were eventually seated.[20]
Although the Chicago sit-ins were not widely advertised at the time, they played an extremely influential role in the sit-in movement and the civil rights movement as a whole. Sit-ins continued throughout the 1940s and 1950s until the major sit-ins in 1960. The many sit-ins that occurred throughout the history of the civil rights movement eventually contributed to the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[20]
One of the most significant contributions to the sit-in movement came from the legal community, especially civil rights organizations like theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and theStudent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). These organizations provided both moral and logistical support to the sit-in participants, helping them organize protests and, when necessary, offering legal assistance. The NAACP's legal team, led by Thurgood Marshall, helped to challenge the discriminatory practices that the sit-ins targeted, particularly segregation laws that allowed for public establishments to deny service based on race. By filing lawsuits and assisting with legal defense, the NAACP ensured that the sit-ins had both legal visibility and the ability to sustain their momentum in the face of arrests and other forms of resistance from local authorities.[21]
In addition to legal support, the sit-ins received significant attention from the media. National and local newspapers, radio stations, and television networks covered the events extensively, bringing the difficult circumstances of African American youth to the forefront of the national conversation. The widespread media coverage of the sit-ins put pressure on local and state governments to address segregationist policies, while also motivating other activists and inspiring similar protests across the country. The media helped turn the sit-ins into a symbol of resistance that drew national attention to the deep-seated racial injustice common in American society.[21]
Media coverage in the form of television, newspapers, and photographs had a critical role in shaping and expanding the sit-in movement. These images displayed students demonstrating peaceful protest and, in return, facing verbal abuse, being arrested, and dealing with severe hostility. These would generate sympathy throughout the United States and attract a lot of national awareness of racial segregation.[2] The Greensboro sit-ins in 1960 attracted a lot of important attention from large outlets, causing other protests to be started in cities such as Atlanta, Richmond, and Nashville.[4] Many scholars and activists have noted that this national attention pressured local businesses and public places to desegregate and also facilitated the formation of new student organizations, including theStudent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).[15] Scholars also highlight how the use of nonviolent protest, along with media coverage of the sit-in movement, was in shaping public opinion and contributing to more support for other civil rights movements.[3] Furthermore, court cases and legal challenges that were shown in the media would highlight the sit-ins' importance and their role in challenging segregation.[16] Media coverage helped turn local protests into a national movement, broadcasting their achievements across the nation and empowering others to do the same.[22]
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Moreover, the sit-ins were supported by a broad alliance of faith-based groups. Religious organizations, particularly churches and clergy members, played a key role in providing sanctuary and moral support for the participants. Many church leaders not only provided spiritual guidance but also facilitated transportation, housing, and food for the activists involved in the sit-ins. These faith-based groups recognized the sit-ins as part of a larger moral struggle for justice and equality, and their support added further legitimacy to the movement.[21]
Finally, the federal government, while initially hesitant to intervene, eventually became a significant player in supporting the civil rights movement. The Kennedy administration, particularly under the leadership of Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedy, began to offer federal protection to sit-in participants, especially when violence erupted or when protesters faced unjust treatment. This federal involvement helped mitigate the risks for many activists, giving them confidence to continue their peaceful protests, knowing that they had some form of legal protection from federal authorities.[21]
| Start date | Sit-in(s) | Location | Ref. | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| August 21, 1939 | Alexandria Library sit-in | Alexandria, Virginia | [23][24] | [note 1] |
| May 16, 1943 | Jack Spratt's Coffee House | Chicago, Illinois | [25][26] | [note 2] |
| June 1943 | Stoner's Restaurant | Chicago, Illinois | [25][26] | [note 3] |
| July 1948 | Des Moines Katz Drugstore protests | Des Moines, Iowa | [27] | |
| 1953 | Baltimore | Baltimore, Maryland | ||
| 1954 | Dresden | Dresden, Ontario, Canada | [28] | |
| January 20, 1955 | Read's Drug Store | Baltimore, Maryland | [29][30] | [note 4] |
| June 23, 1957 | Royal Ice Cream sit-in | Durham, North Carolina | [31] | [note 5] |
| July 19, 1958 | Dockum Drug Store sit-in | Wichita, Kansas | [2] | |
| August 19, 1958 | Katz Drug Store sit-in | Oklahoma City, Oklahoma | [32][2] | [note 6] |
| 1959 | Miami | Miami, Florida |
| Date | Sit-in(s) | Location | Ref. | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| September 11, 1960 | El Charro Mexican Restaurant | Flagstaff, Arizona | [55] | |
| January 31, 1961 | Rock Hill | South Carolina | [note 17] | |
| November 1, 1961 | Albany State College Bus Terminal | Albany, Georgia | [17] | |
| 1962 | Claramont Restaurant | Sewanee, Tennessee | [note 18] | |
| May 28, 1963 | Woolworth's | Jackson, Mississippi | [57][58] | [note 19] |
| March 7, 1964 | Audubon Regional Library | Clinton, Louisiana | [59] | [note 20] |
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)| History |
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