Scalping is the act of cutting or tearing a part of the humanscalp, with hair attached, from the head, and generally occurred in warfare with the scalp being atrophy.[1] Scalp-taking is considered part of the broader cultural practice of the taking and display of human body parts as trophies, and may have developed as an alternative to the taking of human heads, for scalps were easier to take, transport, and preserve for subsequent display. Scalping independently developed in various cultures in both theOld andNew Worlds.[2]

Europe
editOne of the earliest examples of scalping dates back to theMesolithic period, found at a hunter-gatherer cemetery inSweden.[3] Several human remains from the stone-ageErtebølle culture inDenmark show evidence of scalping.[4] A man found in a grave in theAlvastra pile-dwelling in Sweden had been scalped approximately 5,000 years ago.[5]
Georg Friederici noted that “Herodotus provided the only clear and satisfactory portrayal of a scalping people in the old world” in his description of theScythians, a nomadic people then located to the north and west of the Black Sea.[6] Herodotus related that Scythian warriors would behead the enemies they defeated in battle and present the heads to their king to claim their share of the plunder. Then, the warrior would skin the head “by making a circular cut round the ears and shaking out the skull; he then scrapes the flesh off the skin with the rib of an ox, and when it is clean works it with his fingers until it is supple, and fit to be used as a sort of handkerchief. He hangs these handkerchiefs on the bridle of his horse, and is very proud of them. The best man is the man who has the greatest number.”[7]
Ammianus Marcellinus noted the taking of scalps by theAlani in terms quite similar to those used by Herodotus.[8] The AbbéEmmanuel H. D. Domenech referred to thedecalvare of theancient Germans and thecapillos et cutem detrahere of the code of theVisigoths as examples of scalping in earlymedieval Europe,[9] though some more recent interpretations of these terms relate them to shaving off the hair of the head as a legal punishment rather than scalping.[10]
In England in 1036,Earl Godwin, father ofHarold Godwinson, was reportedly responsible for scalping his enemies, among whom wasAlfred Aetheling. According to the ancientAnglo-Saxon Chronicle, 'some of them were blinded, some maimed, some scalped. No more horrible deed was done in this country since theDanes came and made peace here'.[11]
In 1845, mercenary John Duncan observed what he estimated to be 700 scalps taken in warfare and displayed as trophies by a contingent of female soldiers—Dahomey Amazons—employed by the King of Dahomey (present-dayRepublic of Benin). Duncan noted that these would have been taken and kept over a long period of time and would not have come from a single battle. Although Duncan travelled widely in Dahomey, and described customs such as the taking of heads and the retention of skulls as trophies, nowhere else does he mention scalping.[12][13]
Occasional instances of scalping of dead Axis troops by Allied military personnel are known fromWorld War II. While many of these instances took place in the Pacific Theater, along with more extreme forms of trophy-hunting (seeAmerican mutilation of Japanese war dead), occasional instances are reported in the European Theater as well. One particularly widely reported, although disputed, case involves that of German general Friedrich Kussin, the commandant of the town of Arnhem who was ambushed and killed by British paratroopers in the early stages ofOperation Market Garden.[14]
Asia
editThere is physical evidence that scalping was practiced during theLongshan andErlitou periods in China's central plain.[15]
A skull from an Iron Age cemetery inSouth Siberia shows evidence of scalping. It lends physical evidence to the practice of scalp taking by theScythians living there.[16]
Some evidence is also found in theIndian Subcontinent.Bhai Taru Singh (c. 1720– 1 July 1745)[17] was a prominentSikh martyr known for sacrificing his life, in the name of protectingSikh values, by having had his head scalped rather thancutting his hair andconverting to Islam.[18][19]
Americas
editScalping in the Americas predominantly arose from the practices of Native American tribes, and was later copied by European colonists on the continent.[21]
Techniques
editSpecific scalping techniques varied somewhat from place to place, depending on the cultural patterns of the scalper regarding the desired shape, size, and intended use of the severed scalp, and on how the victims wore their hair, but the general process of scalping was quite uniform:
They seize the head of the disabled or dead enemy, and placing one of their feet on the neck, twist their left hand in the hair; by this means, having extended the skin that covers the top of the head, they draw out their scalping knives, which are always kept in good order for this cruel purpose, and with a few dextrous strokes take off the part that is termed the scalp. They are so expeditious in doing this, that the whole time required scarcely exceeds a minute.[22]
The scalp separated from the skull along the plane of theareolar connective tissue, the fourth (and least substantial) of the five layers of the human scalp. Scalping was not in itself fatal, though it was most commonly inflicted on the gravely wounded or the dead. The earliest instruments used in scalping were stone knives crafted offlint,chert, orobsidian, or other materials likereeds oroyster shells that could be worked to carry an edge equal to the task. Collectively, such tools were also used for a variety of everyday tasks like skinning and processing game, but were replaced by metal knives acquired in trade through European contact. The implement, often referred to as a "scalping knife" in popularAmerican and European literature, was not known as such byNative Americans, a knife being for them just a simple and effective multi-purpose utility tool for which scalping was but one of many uses.[23][24]
Intertribal conflict
editThere is substantial archaeological evidence of scalping in North America in thepre-Columbian era.[25][26] Carbon dating of skulls show evidence of scalping as early as 600 AD; some skulls show evidence of healing from scalping injuries, suggesting at least some victims occasionally survived at least several months.[26] AmongPlains Indians, it seems to have been practiced primarily as part of intertribal warfare, with scalps only taken of enemies killed in battle.[26] However, author and historian Mark van de Logt wrote, "Although military historians tend to reserve the concept of 'total war'", in which civilians are targeted, "for conflicts between modern industrial nations," the term "closely approaches the state of affairs between thePawnees, theSioux, and theCheyennes.Noncombatants were legitimate targets. Indeed, the taking of a scalp of a woman or child was considered honorable because it signified that the scalp taker had dared to enter the very heart of the enemy's territory."[27]
Many tribes of Native Americans practiced scalping, in some instances up until the end of the 19th century. Of the approximately 500 bodies at theCrow Creek massacre site, 90 percent of the skulls show evidence of scalping. The event took placecirca 1325 AD.[28] European colonisation of the Americas increased the incidence of intertribal conflict, and consequently an increase in the prevalence of scalping.[25]
Colonial wars
editOfficials in the English colonies ofConnecticut andMassachusetts offered bounties for the heads of killed Indians, and later for just their scalps during thePequot War.[29][30] Connecticut authorities specifically reimbursedMohegans for killingPequot tribespeople in 1637.[31] Four years later, theDutch colony ofNew Amsterdam offered bounties for the heads ofRaritans.[31] In 1643, theIroquois attacked a group ofWyandot fur traders and French carpenters nearMontreal, killing and scalping three Frenchmen.[32]
Bounties for Indian captives or their scalps appeared in the legislation of several English colonies during theSusquehannock War (1675–77).[33] TheNew England Colonies offered bounties to white settlers andNarragansett people in 1675 duringKing Philip's War.[31] By 1692,New France also paid their native allies for scalps of their enemies.[31] In 1697, on the northern frontier of Massachusetts colony, white settlerHannah Duston killed ten of herAbenaki captors during her nighttime escape, presented their ten scalps to theMassachusetts General Court and was rewarded with bounties for two men, two women, and six children, even though colonial authorities had rescinded the law authorizing scalp bounties six months earlier.[29] There were six colonial wars with New England and theIroquois Confederacy fighting New France and theWabanaki Confederacy over a 75-year period, starting withKing William's War in 1688. All sides scalped victims, including noncombatants, during this frontier warfare.[34] Bounty policies originally intended only for Native American scalps were extended to enemy colonists.[31]
Massachusetts created a scalp bounty during King William's War in July 1689, and continued doing so duringQueen Anne's War in 1703.[35][36] DuringFather Rale's War (1722–1725), on August 8, 1722, Massachusetts put a bounty on native families, paying 100 pounds sterling for the scalps of male Indians aged 12 and over, and 50 pounds sterling for women and children.[30][37] RangerJohn Lovewell is known to have conducted scalp-hunting expeditions, the most famous being theBattle of Pequawket in New Hampshire.[citation needed]
In the 1710s and 1720s, New France engaged in frontier warfare with theNatchez people and theMeskwaki people, during which both sides employed the practice.[citation needed] In response to repeated attacks on British settlers by the French and their native allies duringKing George's War, Massachusetts GovernorWilliam Shirley issued a bounty in 1746 to be paid to British-allied Indians for the scalps of French-allied Indian men, women, and children.[38] New York passed a scalp act in 1747.[39]
DuringFather Le Loutre's War and theSeven Years' War inNova Scotia andAcadia,French colonists offered payments to Indians for British scalps.[40] In 1749, governor of Nova ScotiaEdward Cornwallis created an proclamation which included a bounty for male scalps or prisoners, though no scalps were turned in. During the Seven Years' War, governor of Nova ScotiaCharles Lawrence offered a reward for male Mi'kmaq scalps in 1756.[41] In 2000, Mi'kmaq activists argued that this proclamation was still legal in Nova Scotia, though government officials pointed out that it was no longer legal because the bounty was superseded by theHalifax Treaties.[42]
During theFrench and Indian War, as of June 12, 1755, Massachusetts governor William Shirley was offering a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of females or of children under 12 years old.[35][43] In 1756, Pennsylvania Lieutenant Governor Robert Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130Pieces of Eight, for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years," and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."[35][44]
Although much has been made of the existence of scalp bounties, generally because they have been easily accessible as statutes, little research exists on the numbers of bounties actually paid. Early frontier warfare in forested areas in the era of flintlock muzzle-loading rifles favored tomahawks and knives over firearms because of the long loading time after a shot was fired. Advantage was clearly held by bow, knife, and hatchet. Some states had a history of escalating the payout of bounties offered per scalp, presumably because lower bounties were ineffective and were not worth risking one's life in exchange for the payoff. Rising bounties were a measure of bounty system failure.[citation needed]
American Revolutionary War
editDuring theAmerican Revolutionary War,British Indian Department officialHenry Hamilton was nicknamed the "hair-buyer general" byAmerican Patriots as they believed he encouraged and paid British-allied Natives to scalp Americans. As a result, when Hamilton was captured by American troops, he was treated as a war criminal instead of aprisoner of war. However, American historians have noted that there was no proof that he had ever offered rewards for scalps,[45] and no British officer paid for scalps during the conflict.[46]
However, both sides of the war scalped enemy corpses. The September 13, 1779 journal entry of American Lieutenant William Barton recounted how U.S. troops scalped Native dead during theSullivan Expedition.[47] British-alliedIroquois also practiced scalping. The most famous case was that ofJane McCrea, whose fiancé was a Loyalist officer. She was abducted by two Iroquois warriors and ultimately scalped and shot. Her death inspired many American colonists to resist a British invasion from Canada, which ended in defeat at thebattles of Saratoga.[48]
Mexico
editDuring theApache–Mexico Wars in 1835, the government of the Mexican state ofSonora put a bounty on theApache which,[49] over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old.[50] In 1837, the Mexican state ofChihuahua also offered a bounty on Apache scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child.[49] Harris Worcester wrote: "The new policy attracted a diverse group of men, including Anglos, runaway slaves led by Seminole John Horse, and Indians —Kirker usedDelawares andShawnees; others, such as Terrazas, usedTarahumaras; and Seminole chiefCoacoochee led a band of his own people who had fled from Indian Territory."[51] Mexico's scalp bounties were infamously exploited by theGlanton gang: originally charged with fighting the Apache, the gang later began to take scalps from peaceful Natives and non-Native Mexicans.[52]
American Civil War
editSome scalping incidents occurred during theAmerican Civil War of 1861-1865. For example,Confederateguerrillas led by"Bloody Bill" Anderson were well known for decorating their saddles with the scalps ofUnion soldiers they had killed.[53]Archie Clement had the reputation of being Anderson's “chief scalper”.
Continued Indian Wars
editIn 1851, theU.S. Army displayed Indian scalps inStanislaus County, California.
In 1851, the Tehama Massacre occurred inTehama County, California, wherein U.S. military and citizens razed villages and scalped hundreds of men, women, and children.[54] This attack targeted Native communities specifically, in the villages of Yana, Konkow, Nisenan, Wintu, Nomlaki, Patwin, Yuki, and Maidu.[55]
Scalping also occurred during theSand Creek Massacre on November 29, 1864, during theAmerican Indian Wars, when a 700-man force of U.S. Army volunteers destroyed the village ofCheyenne andArapaho in southeasternColorado Territory, killing and mutilating[56][57] an estimated 70–163 Native American civilians.[58][59][60] An 1867New York Times article reported that "settlers in a small town in Colorado Territory had recently subscribed $5,000 to a fund ‘for the purpose of buying Indian scalps (with $25 each to be paid for scalps with the ears on)’ and that the market for Indian scalps ‘is not affected by age or sex’." The article noted this behavior was "sanctioned" by theU.S. federal government, and was modeled on patterns the U.S. had begun a century earlier in the "American East".[61]: 206
From one writer's point of view, it was a "uniquely American" innovation that the use of scalp bounties in the wars against indigenous societies "became an indiscriminate killing process that deliberately targeted Indian non-combatants (including women, children, and infants), as well as warriors."[61]: 204 Some American states such as Arizona paid bounty for enemy Native American scalps.[62]
Image gallery
edit- Skull of a 20- to 30-year-old decapitated woman of the 3rd century AD. Cutting marks above the right eye hole show the head has been scalped.
- Scalp
- Modern roadsidehistorical marker inBoscawen, New Hampshire, about the 1697 scalping incident involvingHannah Duston
- Sauvage matachez en Guerrier (1732), by Alexandre de Batz
- Indian Warrior with Scalp (1789), by Barlow
- Josiah P. Wilbarger being scalped byComanche Indians, 1833
- Lithograph depiction of scalping,circa 1850s
- Survivor Robert McGee was scalped as a child in 1864 bySioux —photo c. 1890.
- 1864 photo of CalifornianSeth Kinman displaying an Indian scalp (front left). He collected "Indian artifacts" including scalps.
- Scalped corpse of buffalo hunter Ralph Morrison found after an 1868 encounter with Cheyennes, nearFort Dodge, Kansas
- Modocs scalping and torturing prisoners, published in May 1873
- The remains of deadCrow Indians killed and scalped by Piegan Blackfeet c. 1874
- Native AmericanBig Mouth Spring with decorated scalp lock on right shoulder. 1910 photograph byEdward S. Curtis.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^Griffin, Anastasia M. (2008).Georg Friederici's (1906) "Scalping and Similar Warfare Customs in America" with a Critical Introduction. ProQuest.ISBN 9780549562092 p.18.
- ^Mensforth, Robert P.; Chacon, Richard J. Chacon; Dye, David H. (2007). "Human Trophy Taking in Eastern North America During the Archaic Period: The Relationship to Warfare and Social Complexity".The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians. Springer Science + Business Media. p. 225.
- ^Ahlström, Torbjörn (2008)."An early example of scalping from the Mesolithic cemetery Skateholm, Sweden".Archäologie und Geschichte im Ostseeraum.3:59–66.
- ^Rying, Bent (1981).Denmark: Introduction, Prehistory (1 ed.). Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. p. 30.
- ^Larsson, ÅM (2009).Breaking and Making Bodies in Pots. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Universitet. p. 277.
- ^Griffin, Anastasia M. (editor); Frederici, Georg (2008). "Critical Introduction".Scalping and Similar Warfare Customs in America. p. 180.ISBN 9780549562092.
- ^Herodotus; De Selincourt, Aubrey (translator) (2003).The Histories. London: Penguin Books. pp. 260–261.ISBN 9780140449082.
- ^Marcellinus, Ammianus; Yonge, C.D. (1862).Roman History, Book XXXI, II. London: Bohn. p. 22.
- ^Domenech, Abbe Emmanuel (1860).Seven Years' Residence in the Great Deserts of North America, Vol. 2. London: Longman Green. p. 358.
- ^Crouch, Jace.The Judicial Punishment of Delcavatio in Visigothic Spain: A Proposed Solution based on Isidore of Seville and the Lex Visigothorum. pp. 1–5. and Abstract.
- ^"V2*Vault Shutdown | Canvas @ Yale".Archived from the original on 2017-08-20. Retrieved2017-08-18.
- ^Duncan, John (1847).Travels in Western Africa in 1845 & 1846, Comprising a Journey from Whydah, through the Kingdom of Dahomey, to Adofoodia, in the Interior, Vol. I. London: Richard Bentley. pp. 233–234.
- ^Duncan, John (1847).Travels in Western Africa in 1845 & 1846, Comprising a Journey from Whydah, through the Kingdom of Dahomey, to Adofoodia, in the Interior, Vol. II. London: Richard Bentley. pp. 274–275.
- ^"Battledetective Case Files".
- ^Stark, Miriam (2008).Archaeology of Asia. Wiley. p. 157."Skeletons with traits of scalping have also been found at Jiangou in southern Hebei (Longshan culture) and Dasima in Henan (Erlitou culture), suggesting that violent behavior became widespread in the Central Plains during the Longshan and Erlitou periods (Chen 2000; Yan 1982)."
- ^Murphy, Eileen; Gokhman, Ilia; Chistov, Yuri; Barkova, Ludmilla (2002). "Prehistoric Old World Scalping: New Cases from the Cemetery of Aymyrlyg, South Siberia".American Journal of Archaeology.106 (1):1–10.doi:10.2307/507186.JSTOR 507186.S2CID 161894416.
- ^"Sikh Martyrs – Bhai Taru Singh". Search Sikhism. Archived fromthe original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved25 January 2007.
- ^Fowler, Marsha; Kirkham, Sheryl; Sawatzky, Rick; Taylor, Elizabeth (2011).Religion, Religious Ethics and Nursing. New: Springer Publishing Company. p. 261.ISBN 9780826106643.
- ^French, Louis (2000).Martyrdom in the Sikh Tradition: Playing the "Game of Love". Oxford University Press. p. 146.ISBN 9780195649475.
- ^"Heritage History | Indian History for Young Folks by Francis Drake".www.heritage-history.com. Retrieved2022-05-04.
- ^Williams, Joseph (19 September 2021)."The Origins of Scalping".oldwest.org. Retrieved3 January 2024.
- ^Jonathan Carver,Travels Through the Interior Parts of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767 and 1768 (John Coakley Lettsom, ed.),pp.328-329, (3d ed., London, 1781) (retrieved May 5, 2024).
- ^Burton, Richard F. (February 1864).Anthropological Review, Vol. 2, No. 4. pp. 50–51.
- ^Griffin, Anastasia M. (editor); Friederici, Georg (2008). "Scalping and Similar Warfare Customs in America". pp. 63–70.ISBN 9780549562092.
- ^abAxtell, James; Sturtevant, William C. (1980)."The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping".The William and Mary Quarterly.37 (3):451–472.doi:10.2307/1923812.ISSN 0043-5597.JSTOR 1923812.
- ^abcMiller, Elizabeth (1994)."Evidence for Prehistoric Scalping in Northeastern Nebraska".Plains Anthropologist.39 (148):211–219.doi:10.1080/2052546.1994.11931728.ISSN 0032-0447.JSTOR 25669265.
- ^van de Logt, Mark (2012).War Party in Blue: Pawnee Scouts in the U.S. Army.University of Oklahoma Press. p. 35.ISBN 978-0806184395.
- ^Hall Steckel, Richard; R. Haines, Michael (2000).A population history of North America.Cambridge University Press. p. 68.ISBN 0-521-49666-7.
- ^abDunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2014).An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States. Beacon Press. p. 64.ISBN 978-0-8070-0040-3.
- ^abFoulds, Diane E. (2000-12-31)."Who Scalped Whom?".The Boston Globe. B10. pp. 36–37. Archived from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved2023-01-13.
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: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) CS1 maint: location (link) - ^abcdeTucker, Spencer C. (2011).The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890. ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 708.ISBN 978-1851096978.
- ^"The Jesuit Relations: Index".Puffin.creighton.edu. 11 August 2014.Archived from the original on 2016-03-21. Retrieved2016-07-28.
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- ^Williamson, William.The History of the State of Maine, Vol 2. pp. 117–118.
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- ^O'Toole, Fintan (2005).White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America. Macmillan.ISBN 9780374281281.
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- ^"Two hundred year-old scalp law still on books in Nova Scotia - Canada - CBC News".Cbc.ca. 2000-01-04.Archived from the original on 2016-05-18. Retrieved2016-07-28.
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- ^Kelsey pg. 303
- ^"Journals of the military expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six nations of Indians in 1779; with records of centennial celebrations; prepared pursuant to chapter 361, laws of the state of New York, of 1885".Archive.org. Auburn, N.Y., Knapp, Peck & Thomson, Printers. 1887.Archived from the original on 2016-03-22. Retrieved2016-07-28.
- ^Peter R. Silver Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York) WW Norton 2009) 246
- ^abHaley, James L. (1981).Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait.University of Oklahoma Press. p. 51.ISBN 0806129786.
- ^History Of The North Mexican States And Texas, Vol. II 1801-1889, San Francisco, The History Company, Publishers,1889, Chapter 24
- ^Worcester, Donald Emmet (1985).Pioneer Trails West. Caxton Press. p. 93.ISBN 0870043048.
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- ^Hoig, Stan (2005) [1974].The Sand Creek Massacre. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 153.ISBN 978-0-8061-1147-6.
- ^Brown, Dee (2001) [1970]. "War Comes to the Cheyenne".Bury my heart at Wounded Knee. Macmillan. pp. 86–87.ISBN 978-0-8050-6634-0.
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Bibliography
edit- Axtell, James."Scalps and Scalping".Encyclopedia of North American Indians. Archived fromthe original on 2002-12-23. Retrieved2005-04-12.
- Billard, Jules B. (1974).World of the American Indian (1st ed.). Washington DC: National Geographic Society.
- Burton, Richard F. (1864)."Notes on Scalping".Anthropological Review.II:49–52.
- Arthur, Elizabeth (1979)."Hamilton, Henry". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.).Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. IV (1771–1800) (online ed.).University of Toronto Press.
- Grenier, John (2008).The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Norman: U of Oklahoma Press.
- Grenier, John (2005).The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier. Cambridge University Press.
- Griffin, Anastasia M. (2008).Georg Friederici's (1906) "Scalping and Similar Warfare Customs in America" with a Critical Introduction. p. 248.ISBN 9780549562092.
- Kelsey, Isabel (1984).Joseph Brant 1743–1807: Man of Two Worlds. Syracuse University Press.ISBN 0-8156-0182-4.
- Mensforth, Robert P.; Chacon, Richard J. (editor); Dye, David H. (editor) (2007). "Human Trophy Taking in Eastern North America During the Archaic Period: The Relationship to Warfare and Social Complexity".The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians. Springer Science + Business Media: 225.
External links
edit- Axtell, James; Sturtevant, William."The Unkindest Cut, or Who Invented Scalping"(PDF).Amstudy.hku.hk.
- Cowan, Ross."Head-Hunting Roman Cavalry".Academia.edu.[permanent dead link]
- Lawrence, Charles, Governor (1756)."British Scalp Proclamation".We Were Not the Savages: First Nation History. Archived from the original on November 7, 2004.
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