Sacral architecture (also known assacred architecture orreligious architecture) is areligiousarchitectural practice concerned with the design and construction ofplaces of worship or sacred or intentional space, such aschurches,mosques,stupas,synagogues, andtemples. Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanentmonolithicbuildings created by humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public.

Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, prior to the modern skyscraper.^{[citation needed]} While the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise ofChristianity andIslam, religious buildings increasingly became centres ofworship,prayer andmeditation.^{[citation needed]}

The Western scholarly discipline of thehistory of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until theBaroque period, at least.Sacred geometry,iconography, and the use of sophisticatedsemiotics such as signs, symbols and religious motifs are endemic to sacred architecture.

Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space.

Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make "transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit."^{[citation needed]} In discussing sacred architecture, Protestant ministerRobert Schuller suggested that "to be psychologically healthy, human beings need to experience their natural setting—the setting we were designed for, which is the garden."^{[citation needed]} Meanwhile,Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that sacred space can be analyzed by three factors affecting spiritual process: longitudinal space emphasizes the procession and return of sacramental acts, auditorium space is suggestive of proclamation and response, and new forms of communal space designed for gathering and return depend to a great degree on minimized scale to enhance intimacy and participation in worship.^{[citation needed]} The scholar of religious studiesFlorin George Călian affirms that "the sacred space is the place where the transcendent becomes immanent, and where the devotee can access God."^[1]

Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles includingNeolithic architecture,ancient Egyptian architecture andSumerian architecture. Ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling place, thetemenos of the gods and were used as the site of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are also examples of architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. TheTemple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years and its numerous temples comprise what may be the largest religious structure ever built.^{[citation needed]} Ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for millennia.

Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of theTemple of Hera atOlympia were replaced by stone columns. With the spread of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers, most of our concept of classical architecture is based on religious structures.^{[citation needed]} TheParthenon, which served as a treasury building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the greatest example of classical architecture.^[opinion]

Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the geography and geology of the Indian subcontinent. India was crisscrossed by trading routes of merchants from as far away asSiraf andChina as well as weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles. The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies fromWest,Central Asia, andEurope.

Buddhist architecture developed inSouth Asia beginning in the third century BCE.^{[citation needed]} Two types of structures are associated with earlyBuddhism:viharas andstupas. Originally, Viharas were temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but these structures later developed to accommodate the growing and increasingly formalized Buddhistmonasticism.^{[citation needed]} An existing example is atNalanda (Bihar).

The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of theBuddha. The earliest existing example of a stupa is inSanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated intochaitya-grihas (stupa halls). These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes ofAjanta andEllora (Maharashtra).^{[citation needed]}

Thepagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa^{[citation needed]} that is marked by a tieredtower with multipleeaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia.Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of theMahabodhi Temple atBodh Gaya inBihar. The architectural structure of the stupa spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions were incorporated into the overall design. It was spread to China and the Asian region byAraniko, aNepali architect in the early 13th century forKublai Khan.

Hindu temple architecture is based onSthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts like theBrihat Samhita,Vastu Shastra, andShilpa Shastras in accordance to the design principles and guidelines believed to have been laid by the divine architectVishvakarma. It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict religious models that incorporate elements ofastronomy andsacred geometry.^{[citation needed]} In Hindu belief, thetemple represents themacrocosm of the universe as well as themicrocosm of inner space. While the underlying form of Hindu temple architecture follows strict traditions, considerable variation occurs with the often intense decorative embellishments and ornamentation.

Byzantine architecture evolved from Roman architecture. Eventually, a style emerged incorporating Near East influences and the Greek cross plan for church design. In addition, brick replaced stone, classical order was less strictly observed,mosaics replaced carved decoration, and complexdomes were erected.

One of the great breakthroughs in the history of Western architecture occurred whenJustinian I's architects invented a complex system providing a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means ofsquinches orpendentives. The prime example of early Byzantine religious architecture is theHagia Sophia in Istanbul.^{[citation needed]}

The religious architecture of Christian churches in theMiddle Ages featured theLatin cross plan, which takes the Romanbasilica as its primary model, with subsequent developments. It consists of anave andtransepts, and thealtar stands at the east end (seecathedral diagram). Also,cathedrals influenced or commissioned byJustinian I employed theByzantine style of domes and aGreek cross (resembling a plus sign), centering attention on the altar at thecenter of the church. TheChurch of the Intercession on the Nerl is an excellent example ofRussian orthodox architecture in the Middle Ages. TheUrnes stave church (Urnes stavkyrkje) inNorway is a superb example of a medievalstave church.

Gothic architecture was particularly associated with cathedrals and other churches, which flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. Originating in 12th century France, it was known during the period asOpus Francigenum ("French work"). The style originated at theabbey church of Saint-Denis inSaint-Denis, nearParis.^[2] Other notable Gothic religious structures includeNotre-Dame de Paris, theCathedral of Our Lady of Amiens, and theChartres Cathedral.

TheRenaissance brought a return of classical influence and a new emphasis on rational clarity.Renaissance architecture represents a conscious revival of Roman architecture with its symmetry, mathematical proportions, and geometric order.Filippo Brunelleschi's plan for the dome of theFlorence Cathedral in 1418 was one of the first important religious architectural designs of theItalian Renaissance architecture.

The evolution fromRenaissance toBaroque appeared most notably in religious art and architecture. Most architectural historians regardMichelangelo's design ofSt. Peter's Basilica in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style;^{[citation needed]} this can be recognized by broader interior spaces (replacing long narrow naves), more playful attention to light and shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and frequently, a dramatic central exterior projection. The most important early example ofBaroque architecture was theSanta Susanna byCarlo Maderno.^[opinion]St Paul's Cathedral inLondon byChristopher Wren is regarded as the prime example of the rather late influence of theBaroque style in England.^{[citation needed]}

Temples ofthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints offer a unique look at design as it has changed from the simple church-like structure of theKirtland Temple built in the 1830s, to thecastellatedGothic styles of the earlyUtah temples, to the dozens of modern temples built today. Early temples, and some modern temples, have a priesthood assembly room with two sets of pulpits at each end of the room, with chairs or benches that can be altered to face either way. Most, but not all temples have the recognizable statue of theAngel Moroni atop a spire. TheNauvoo Temple and theSalt Lake Temple are adorned with symbolic stonework, representing various aspects of the faith.

Modern architecture spans several styles with similar characteristics resulting in simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. The most influential modernist architects in the early to mid 20th century includeDominikus Böhm,Rudolf Schwarz, andAuguste Perret.^[3] While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern architecture,^[opinion] several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious buildings of the 20th century. For example,Unity Temple in Chicago is aUnitarian Universalist congregation designed byFrank Lloyd Wright. TheUnited States Air Force Academy Cadet Chapel, started in 1954 and completed in 1962, was designed byWalter Netsch and is an excellent example of modern religious architecture. It has been described as a "phalanx of fighters" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward.^{[citation needed]} In 1967, ArchitectPietro Belluschi designed the strikingly modernCathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption (San Francisco), the first Catholic cathedral in the United States intended to conform toVatican II.^{[citation needed]}

Postmodern architecture may be described by unapologetically diverse aesthetics where styles collide, form exists for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound.The Temple at Independence, Missouri was conceived by Japanese architectGyo Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus.^{[citation needed]} The CatholicCathedral of Our Lady of the Angels (Los Angeles) was designed in 1998 byJose Rafael Moneo in a post-modern style. The structure evokes the area's Hispanic heritage through the use of adobe coloring while combining stark modern form with some traditional elements. TheBasilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more traditional edifice. Designed byBarbara Bielecka and built between 1994 and 2004, its form includes references to a number of Polish structures.^{[citation needed]} The columns possess a slenderness and delicacy inspired by those of the Renaissance court ofWawel Castle inKraków, while the huge 420-foot spire that will be erected next to the basilica bears more than an accidental resemblance to the Baroque spire that adorns theJasna Gora monastery ofCzestochowa, home of theBlack Madonna.

Shaker communities were semiotically architectured^[jargon] upon the crux of thecompass rose.^{[citation needed]}

Byzantine architecture had a great influence on earlyIslamic architecture with its characteristichorseshoe arches,vaults and domes. Many forms of mosques have evolved in different regions of theIslamic world. Notable mosque types include the earlyAbbasid mosques, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques ofAnatolia. The earliest styles in Islamic architecture produced 'Arab-plan' orhypostyle mosques during theUmayyad Dynasty. These mosques follow a square or rectangular plan with enclosed courtyard and covered prayer hall. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat prayer hall roofs, which required numerouscolumns andsupports.^[4] TheMezquita inCórdoba,Spain was constructed as a hypostyle mosque supported by over 850 columns.^[5] Arab-plan mosques continued under theAbbasid dynasty.

TheOttomans introduced 'central dome' mosques in the 15th century that have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there are often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, in areas where prayer is not performed.^[6] TheDome of the Rock mosque in Jerusalem is perhaps the best known example of a central dome mosque.^[opinion]

'Iwan mosques' are most notable for their domed chambers andiwans, which are vaulted spaces open out on one end. In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style represents a borrowing from pre-IslamicIranian architecture and has been used almost exclusively for mosques inIran. Many iwan mosques are convertedZoroastrian fire temples where the courtyard was used to house the sacred fire.^[4] Today, iwan mosques are no longer built.^[6] TheShah Mosque inIsfahan,Iran is a classic example of an iwan mosque.

A common feature in mosques is theminaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area. The first mosques had no minarets, and even nowadays the most conservative Islamic movements, likeWahhabis, avoid building minarets, seeing them as ostentatious and unnecessary. The first minaret was constructed in 665 inBasra during the reign of theUmayyadcaliphMuawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the construction of minarets, as they were supposed to bring mosques on par withChristianchurches with theirbell towers. Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose – calling the faithful to prayer.^[7]

Domes have been a hallmark ofIslamic architecture since the 7th century. As time progressed, the sizes of mosque domes grew, from occupying only a small part of the roof near themihrab to encompassing all of the roof above the prayer hall. Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, theMughals in India popularizedonion-shaped domes inSouth Asia andPersia.^[8]

The prayer hall, also known as themusalla, has no furniture; chairs and pews are absent from the prayer hall.^[9] Prayer halls contain no images of people, animals, and spiritual figures although they may be decorated withArabic calligraphy and verses from theQur'an on the walls.

Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is theqibla wall, which is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The qibla wall is normally set perpendicular to a line leading toMecca.^[10] Worshipers pray in rows parallel to the qibla wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the qibla wall. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. Sometimes, especially duringFriday prayers, a raisedminbar or pulpit is located to the side of the mihrab for akhatib or some other speaker to offer a sermon (khutbah). The mihrab serves as the location where theimam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.^[11]

Mosques often haveablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. However, worshipers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard.^[5] Modern mosques may have a variety of amenities available to their congregants and the community, such ashealth clinics,libraries andgymnasiums.

Bahá'í Houses of Worship or Mas͟hriqu'l-Ad͟hkár (Arabic: مشرق اﻻذكار‎ "Dawning-place of the remembrance of God") exemplify the principles of theBahá'í Faith of unity in diversity, the unity of God, theunity of His prophets and religions, and the unity of humanity.^[12] These spiritual principles give rise to new forms of architectural expression that serve as spaces in which people of all beliefs, cultures, and backgrounds gather together, meditate, reflect, and pray, and around which will be built social, humanitarian, educational, and scientific institutions.^[13] The design of each Bahá'í House of Worship reflects unifying elements of their environment, emerging from a grassroots approach of consultation with the native people,^[14] each having nine sides and nine entrances, the number nine being symbolic of unity. Eight continental and two local Bahá’í Houses of Worship have been built so far.^[15]

•  
  Baháʼí House of Worship,Santiago, Chile
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  TheBaháʼíLotus Temple in Delhi, India
•  
  Bahá'í House of Worship,Wilmette, Illinois

• Chapel
• Ġgantija
• Mandir
• Hierotopy
• Sanctum sanctorum
• Sacred site

• Interfaith Forum on Religion, Art and Architecture American Institute of Architects
• Architecture, Culture & Spirituality
• Sacred Architecture online journal