Indonesia,^[b] officially theRepublic of Indonesia,^[c] is a country inSoutheast Asia andOceania, between theIndian andPacific oceans. Comprising over17,000 islands, includingSumatra,Java,Sulawesi, and parts ofBorneo andNew Guinea, Indonesia is the world's largestarchipelagic state and the14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world'sfourth-most-populous country and the most populousMuslim-majority country. Java, the world'smost populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.

Republic of Indonesia Republik Indonesia (Indonesian)
Flag Emblem
Motto:  Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese) "Unity in Diversity"
Anthem: Indonesia Raya "Indonesia the Great"
National ideology: Pancasila (Sanskrit) "The Five Principles"
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Capital and largest city	Jakarta 6°10′S106°49′E / 6.167°S 106.817°E /-6.167; 106.817
Official languages	Indonesian
Indigenous languages	718 languages[a][1]
Writing system	Latin (predominantly) Regional Balinese Batak Javanese Jawi-Pegon Lontara Ulu Sundanese Cia-Cia
Ethnic groups (2010)	40.2%Javanese 15.5%Sundanese 3.7%Malay 3.6%Batak 3.0%Madurese 34.0%Others (600+ ethnic groups)
Religion (2024)	87.1%Islam 10.4%Christianity 7.38%Protestant 3.07%Catholic 1.7%Hinduism 0.8%Buddhism,Folk,Confucianism, andothers[2]
Demonym(s)	Indonesian
Government	Unitarypresidential republic
• President	Prabowo Subianto
• Vice President	Gibran Rakabuming Raka
• House Speaker	Puan Maharani
• Chief Justice of the Supreme Court	Sunarto
• Chief Justice of the Constitutional Court	Suhartoyo
Legislature	People's Consultative Assembly (MPR)
• Upper house	Regional Representative Council (DPD)
• Lower house	House of Representatives (DPR)
Independence  from theNetherlands
• Proclaimed	17 August 1945
• Recognised	27 December 1949
Area
• Total	1,904,569[3] km2 (735,358 sq mi) (14th)
• Water (%)	4.85
Population
• 2024 estimate	284,973,643[2] (4th)
• 2020 census	270,203,917[4]
• Density	143/km2 (370.4/sq mi) (88th)
GDP (PPP)	2025 estimate
• Total	$4.98 trillion[5] (7th)
• Per capita	$17,520[5] (102nd)
GDP (nominal)	2025 estimate
• Total	$1.49 trillion[5] (16th)
• Per capita	$5,248[5] (118th)
Gini (2024)	37.9[6] medium inequality
HDI (2023)	0.728[7] high (113th)
Currency	Indonesian rupiah (Rp) (IDR)
Time zone	UTC+7, +8, +9 (WIB, WITA, WIT)
Date format	DD/MM/YYYY
Calling code	+62
ISO 3166 code	ID
Internet TLD	.id

Indonesia operates as apresidential republic with an electedlegislature and consists of38 provinces, nine of which havespecial autonomous status.Jakarta, the largest city, is the world'ssecond-most-populous urban area. Indonesia sharesland borders withPapua New Guinea,Timor-Leste, and theeastern part of Malaysia, as well asmaritime borders withSingapore,Peninsular Malaysia,Vietnam,Thailand, thePhilippines,Australia,Palau, andIndia. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of theworld's highest levels of biodiversity.

TheIndonesian archipelago has been a valuable region fortrade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra'sSrivijaya and later Java'sMajapahit kingdoms engaged incommerce with entities frommainland China and theIndian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing ofHindu andBuddhist kingdoms.Sunni traders andSufi scholars later broughtIslam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands ofMaluku during theAge of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries ofDutch colonialism, Indonesia securedits independence afterWorld War II and has since faced challenges such as separatism, corruption, and natural disasters, alongsidedemocratisation and rapid economic growth.

Indonesian society comprises hundreds ofethnic andlinguistic groups, withJavanese being the largest. The nation's identity is unified under the mottoBhinneka Tunggal Ika, defined by anational language, cultural and religious pluralism, a history ofcolonialism, and rebellion against it. Anewly industrialised country, Indonesia'seconomy ranks as the world's16th-largest by nominal GDP and the7th-largest by PPP. As the world's third-largest democracy and amiddle power in global affairs, the country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including theUnited Nations,World Trade Organization,G20,MIKTA,BRICS and a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement,Association of Southeast Asian Nations,East Asia Summit,APEC and theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation.

The nameIndonesia derives from theGreek wordsIndos (Ἰνδός) andnesos (νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands".^[10] The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850,George Windsor Earl, an Englishethnologist, proposed the termsIndunesians—and, his preference,Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago orMalay Archipelago".^[11][12] In the same publication, one of his students,James Richardson Logan, usedIndonesia as a synonym forIndian Archipelago.^[13][14] Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to useIndonesia. They preferredMalay Archipelago (Dutch:Maleische Archipel); theNetherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularlyIndië;the East (de Oost); andInsulinde.^[15]

After 1900,Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.^[15]Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his bookIndonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name wasKi Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands,Indonesisch Pers-bureau, in 1913.^[12]

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time ofhomo erectus or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE.^[16][17][18] Fossils ofhomo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, whilehomo sapiens arrived around 43,000 BCE.^[19][20][21] Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest knowncave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years,^[22][23] and megalithic sites such as western Java'sGunung Padang, Sulawesi'sLore Lindu, as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.^[24]

Around 2,000 BCE,Austronesian peoples began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island now known asTaiwan, gradually displacing nativeMelanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east,^[25] and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements likewet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE^[26] enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.^[27][28][29]

By the 7th century CE, theSrivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the BuddhistSailendra and HinduMataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like theBorobudur andPrambanan temples. After the failedMongol invasion of Java in the late 13th century, the HinduMajapahit kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago underGajah Mada's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history.^[30] Islamarrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra,^[31] and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.^[32]

In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago, led by Portuguese traders underFrancisco Serrão, toseek a monopoly of the lucrativespice trade in theMaluku Islands.^[33] Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing theDutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602, which eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, theDutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony,^[34] marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by theNetherlands. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like PrinceDiponegoro in central Java,Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra,Pattimura in Maluku, andfighters in Aceh.^[35][36][37] Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century,^{[37][38][39][40]} with the establishment of Dutch posts inNew Guinea.^[41]

DuringWorld War II, theJapanese invasion andoccupation of the Indies ended Dutch rule^[42][43][44] and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement.^[45] Only two days afterJapan's surrender in August 1945,Sukarno andMohammad Hatta issued theProclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along withSutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister.^{[46][47][48][46]} The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start ofIndonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949, when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in theDutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference following international pressure.^[49][48] Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.^[50][51]

Sukarno shifted Indonesia fromdemocracy toauthoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam,the military, and theCommunist Party of Indonesia (PKI).^[52] Tensions between the latter two culminated inan attempted coup in 1965, leading to aviolent anti-communist purge led by the Army's Major GeneralSuharto that killed at least 500,000 people and imprisoned around a million more.^{[53][54][55][56]} The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed,^[57][58][59] weakening Sukarno's power. Suhartocapitalised on this, becoming President in 1968 and establishing a US-backed"New Order" administration,^{[60][61][62][63]} which fosteredforeign direct investment^[64][65][66] and drove three decades of substantial economic growth.

Indonesia was the country worst affected by the1997 Asian financial crisis,^[67] which brought outwidespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's rule.^{[42][68][69][70]} In 1999, East Timor seceded after acontroversial 25-year occupation followingIndonesia's 1975 invasion.^[71][72]Since 1998, Indonesia has strengthened democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding thefirst direct presidential election in 2004.^[73]

Political, economic and social instability andterrorism were persistent in the 2000s.^[74][75] The economy has performed strongly since 2007, althoughcorruption remains a chronic issue.^[76] Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.^[77] A political settlement to a separatistinsurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.^[78]

The southernmost country in Asia, Indonesia lies between latitudes11°S and6°N and longitudes95°E and141°E. It is also atranscontinental country, spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania and is the world's largestarchipelagic state, stretching 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.^[79] The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited.^[80][3] Its five largest islands areSumatra,Java,Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia),Sulawesi, andNew Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).^[81]

The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft),Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, whileLake Toba in Sumatra, covering 1,145 km² (442 sq mi), is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, includeKapuas,Barito andMahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.^[82]

Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round,^[83] characterised by two main seasons: thedry season from May to October and thewet season from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter.^[84] The climate is predominantlytropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (KöppenCfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near thetropicalmonsoon andtropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (KöppenCwb) is more pronounced during the dry season.^[85] There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as theLombok andSape Straits,^[86] rather than typhoons or storms.

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from theprojected effects of climate change,^[88] including a temperature rise of 1.5 °C (3 °F) by 2050 due to unreduced emissions.^[89][90] This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,^[90] and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.^[90]Rising sea levels would also threaten densely populated coastal regions,^[91][92] and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.^[93]

Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the PacificRing of Fire, where theIndo-Australian andPacific plates subduct beneath theEurasian plate, where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.^[94] A chain of volcanoes stretches fromSumatra throughJava,Bali and theLesser Sunda Islands, and theBanda Islands ofMaluku to northeasternSulawesi.^[95] Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.^[94] Whilevolcanic ash has made agriculture unpredictable in some areas,^[96] it has also created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.^[97] Between 1972 and 1991, Java experienced a total of 29 volcanic eruptions.^[98]

The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. Amassive supervolcano erupted with a maximumvolcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8 at present-dayLake Toba around 74,000 BCE, causing a globalvolcanic winter, cooling the climate, and possibly influencing human evolution.^[99] Theeruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, the most recently confirmed VEI-7 eruption, made much of the Northern Hemispherewithout summer in 1816.^[100] Theeruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883, a VEI-6 eruption, produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional effects around the world years after the event.^[101] Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the2018 Sulawesi earthquake.^[102]

Recognised byConservation International as one of 17megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian andAustralasian species.^[103] TheSunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.^[104][105] In terms of totalendemic species, the Indonesian archipelago ranks among the highest globally.^[106]

The country also boasts 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,^[10] as well as coral reefs in theCoral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity ofcoral reef fish globally, with over 2,000 species.^[107] TheWallace Line, described by English naturalistAlfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace andWeber Lines (calledWallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book,The Malay Archipelago.^[108][109] Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests,^[110] are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.

Indonesia faces severeenvironmental challenges due to extensive deforestation,^[111] peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s,^[112] and in most recent years, palm oil.^{[113][114][115]} Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022,^[116][112] highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.^[117] These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.^[118] They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as theBali myna,^[119]Sumatran orangutan,^[120] andJavan rhinoceros.^[121] Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.^[122][123]

As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land asprotected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.^[124] Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed.^[125] Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification asother effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.^[126]

Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks,^[127] with six recognised asWorld Heritage Sites, seven as part of theWorld Network of Biosphere Reserves^[128] and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012, and these are managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former PresidentSusilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.^[129]

Indonesia is apresidential republic. Following thefall of the New Order in 1998, sweepingamendments to the Constitution of Indonesia restructured the state's executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining a balance between itsunitary state framework and greater decentralisation to regional governments.^[130][131] Thepresident serves ashead of state,head of government, and commander-in-chief of theIndonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia [TNI]) and oversees domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.^[132]

ThePeople's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat [MPR]) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.^[133][134] It consists of two houses: thePeople's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat [DPR]), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and theRegional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah [DPD]), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters.^[135] Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance functionality.^[130] The DPD represents the interests of the diverseregions of Indonesia.^[136][134]

Indonesia’s judiciary includes several key institutions. TheSupreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews.^[137] TheConstitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters,^[137] while the country's Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) overseesIslamic personal law cases.^[138] Additionally, theJudicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.^[139]

Since 1999, Indonesia has operated under amulti-party system, wherein no single political party has secured an outright majority of seats in thelegislative elections. Political parties are generally classified into two categories: secular and nationalist parties, which include theIndonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), theParty of the Functional Groups (Golkar), and theGreat Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra Party); and Islamic parties, such as the centristNational Awakening Party (PKB) and theIslamistProsperous Justice Party (PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by a preference for pragmatism over ideological orthodoxy to fit the prevailing political climate,^[140] and by what are calledcartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters.^[141] Unlike many other democracies, pre-election party alliances are the norm in Indonesia.^[140]

In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and theConstitutional Assembly (Konstituante). Themost recent elections in 2024 brought eight political parties to the DPR, with aparliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote.^[142] At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a President until 2004. Since then, the President has been elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.^[135][130] Beginning with the2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2013, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in2019.^[143]

Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are theprovinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an electedgovernor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945^[144] to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022.^[145] The second level includesregencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this aredistricts (kecamatan, calleddistrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprisesvillages, known by various names likedesa,kelurahan,kampung,nagari (in West Sumatra), orgampong (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusun ordukuh) in Java.^[146]

The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurah orkepala desa) and handle local matters.^[147] Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for most government services. Nine provinces (Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and the six provinces inPapua) are granted aspecial autonomous status (otonomi khusus) from the central government. A conservativeIslamic territory, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law.^[148] Yogyakarta uniquely retains itspre-colonial monarchy, with itsSultan andDuke serving as governor and vice governor,^[149] while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance, aiming to integrate the region more equally with the rest of Indonesia.^[150]

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president,Mohammad Hatta.^[152] This policy aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers.^[153] The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions,^[154][134] while theForeign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be amiddle power in global politics.^[155]

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy.^[156] Indonesia hasactively supported Palestine while refraining from formaldiplomatic relations with Israel. However, the two countries maintain discreet ties.^[157] Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has built deeprelations with China, primarily relating to investments in infrastructure and trade,^[158] while at the same time maintaining a strategicpartnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.^[159]

Indonesia has beena member of the United Nations since 1950^[d] and is a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement (NAM), theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and theEast Asia Summit.^[161] Indonesia is also a signatory to theASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, theCairns Group, and theWorld Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s,^[162] but it recently established its own foreign aid agency in 2019.^[163] The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions since 1957, including inLebanon, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo, andMali.^[164]

TheIndonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of theArmy (TNI-AD),Navy (TNI-AL) (including theMarine Corps), andAir Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force.^[165] Established during theIndonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.^[166] Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced fromits peak during the New Order.^[167] Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP,^[168] with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.^[169]

Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably inAceh andPapua.^[170][171] While the former ended peacefully in 2005,^[78] the latter has continued amid the implementation of regional autonomy^[172] and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.^[173] Indonesia's historical military engagements includeconflicts with the Netherlands overDutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and theinvasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.^[174][175]

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily handled by theIndonesian National Police (POLRI), supported by other agencies under the President, ministries, or state-owned companies. These agencies perform specific policing duties and are supervised and trained by the POLRI, which serves as the country's national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order.

Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularlyagainst Chinese Indonesians and Papuans,^[176][177] which have at times escalated into violence, notably theanti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoingPapua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face challenges, where a rapid surge ofanti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s^[178] after relative obscurity onthe topic in the decades prior.^[179] Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.^[77][180]

Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections.^[181][134] Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online.^[182] Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement.^[183] The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.^[184]

Indonesia operates amixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles.^[187] As the onlyG20 member state in Southeast Asia,^[188] it has the region's largest economy and is classified as anewly industrialised country. In 2024, its nominal GDP wasUS$1.402 trillion,ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) wasUS$4.658 trillion,ranking 7th. Per capita GDP in PPP isUS$16,542, while nominalper capita GDP isUS$4,980.^[5] In 2021, services dominate the economy in terms of employment (49.2%), followed by agriculture (28.9%) and industry (21.7%), while in terms of share of GDP in 2022, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by manufacturing (18.3%) and agriculture (12.4%).^[189]

The economic structure hasshifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s.^[190] Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%.^[191] However, the economy took a severe hit during theAsian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78%, and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999.^[192] Recovery began in the early 2000s, with prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies and flexible exchange rates,^[193][194] resulting in growth rates between 4% and 6% since 2004.^[195] These factors, coupled with strong domestic consumption, helped Indonesia weather the2008 financial crisis.^[193] TheCOVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within just a year.^[196]

Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio.^[197] It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand.^[197] Owing to plentiful rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil, Indonesia is amajor agricultural country, ranking among the leading producers of palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, cassava, rice, wheat, coconut oil, and tobacco.^[198] Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.^[199][200]

Tourism plays a significant role in Indonesia's economy, contributingUS$14 billion to GDP and drawing 11.6 million international visitors in 2023.^[202] Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.^[203]

The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres). Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancientBorobudur andPrambanan temples, theToraja highlands, and the traditional festivities ofBali.^[204]

Indonesia is home toten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, includingKomodo National Park and theCosmological Axis of Yogyakarta. Additionally, 18 other sites are on the tentative list, such asBunaken National Park and theRaja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies inJakarta andSemarang, as well as theroyal palaces ofPagaruyung andUbud.^[204]

Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.28% of GDP in 2020.^[205] Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status.^[206] Historical innovations includeterasering, the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and thepinisi boats of theBugis andMakassar people.^[207] In the 1980s,Tjokorda Raka Sukawati developed theSosrobahu road construction technique that is now used internationally.^[208] Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-ownedIndonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains abroad.^[209]

Indonesia has a history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company,Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI), has supplied components toBoeing andAirbus^[210] and co-developed theCN-235 with Spain'sCASA.^[211] Former PresidentB. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research.^[212] Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jetKAI KF-21 Boramae.^[213]

Indonesia's space program, managed by theNational Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite (Palapa) in 1976 with assistance from the United States,^[214] making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes.^[215] Recently, the government licensedStarlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.^[216]

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution, which is heavily concentrated on Java.^[217] As of 2022, the predominant road network spanned 548,097 kilometres (340,572 miles),^[218] includingTransjakarta, which operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system.^[219] Common urban transport includesrickshaws likebajaj andbecak and shared taxis such asangkot and minibuses.^[220][221]

Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi,^[222] serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those inGreater Jakarta andYogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta andPalembang, with more planned for other cities.^[223] In collaboration with China, Indonesia inaugurated its firsthigh-speed rail (Whoosh) in 2023, connecting Jakarta andBandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.^[224]

Air and sea transport also play significant roles.Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest,served 54 million passengers in 2024, followed byNgurah Rai andJuanda International Airports.Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline allianceSkyTeam.^[225] ThePort of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced,^[226] handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.^[227]

Indonesia is amajor energy producer and consumer, producing 5,500terawatt-hours (18.8 quadrillionBritish thermal units) and consuming 3,081 terawatt-hours (10.514 quadrillion British thermal units) worth of energy in 2023.^[228] The country's totalinstalled power generation capacity in 2022 is approximately 83.8 gigawatts (GW),^[229] primarily from coal (61%).^[229] Other significant sources include natural gas, oil, and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower, and solar.^[230] The state-ownedState Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on electric power distribution in the country.^[231]

Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil.^[232] Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share.^[233] The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.^[230] The country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal^[234][197] and a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).^[235]

The government plans to transition towards greener energy sources^[236] and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.^[232] In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables.^[236] However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas,^[237] and continues to rely heavily on coal.^[238]

According to the2020 census,Indonesia has a population of 270.2 million, making it the world'sfourth most populous country. The population grew at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020.^[4] Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of Indonesia's population.^[4] The overall population density stands at 141 people per square kilometre (370 people/sq mi),^[4] but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching 1,171 people per square kilometre (3,030 people/sq mi).^[239] Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million,^[240] and projections estimate it will grow to 321 million by 2050.^[241] The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.^[3]

Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography andvarying levels of development. It ranges from the bustlingmegacity of Jakarta to remote anduncontacted tribes in Papua.^[242] As of 2023, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas,^[243] with Jakarta as the country'sprimate city and thesecond-most populous urban area globally, housing over 34 million people.^[244] Additionally, about 8 millionIndonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.^[245]

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,^[246] predominantly descended fromAustronesian peoples speakingProto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. TheMelanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.^{[25][247][248][249]} The Javanese, making up 40% of the population,^[250] are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one,^[251] primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include theSundanese,Malay,Batak,Madurese,Betawi,Minangkabau, andBugis.^[250][e] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.^[252]

The official language,Indonesian, is a variant ofMalay based on itsprestige dialect, which became the archipelago'slingua franca over the course of centuries.^[f] It was firstpromoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the nameBahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance.^[256] While nearly all Indonesians speakBahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as theirfirst language.^[257] These are predominantly from theAustronesian family, with over 270Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia.^[257]Javanese is the most widely spoken local language^[3] and holds co-official status inYogyakarta.^[258]

TheDutch and other European-descended populations like theIndos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930.^[259] The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.^[260][261] Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,^[262] as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.^[263]

Indonesia officially recognisessix religions:Islam,Protestantism,Roman Catholicism,Hinduism,Buddhism, andConfucianism,^[264][265] while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution^[266][134] andindigenous religions for administrative purposes.^[265][267] As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (248 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,^[268][2] with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.^[269][g] Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces,^[271] while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.^[272][273]

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practisedanimism anddynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.^[274] Such beliefs are common to theAustronesian peoples.^[274] These indigenous traditions, such as SundaneseSunda Wiwitan, JavaneseKejawèn and Dayak'sKaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javaneseabangan,Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.^[275]

Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,^[276] followed by Buddhism in the 6th century.^[277] Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority.^[278][279] Islam arrived as early as the 8th century^[280][281] through Sunni and Sufi traders from theIndian subcontinent andsouthern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).^[32][282] By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade,dawah, such as by theWali Sanga and Chinese explorerZheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.^[283][284]

Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as byJesuitFrancis Xavier,^[285][286] though the spread of the former faced challenges under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches includeCalvinism andLutheranism,^{[287][288][289]} though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.^[290] A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta,Manado and Surabaya.^[291] One of the remaining synagogues,Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31 km from Manado.^[291][292]

Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity.^[293][294] Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.^[295][296] While it promotes harmony,^[297] religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.^[77][180]

Indonesia hasone of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago.^[298] Overseen by theMinistry of Primary and Secondary Education, theMinistry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and theMinistry of Religious Affairs for Islamic schools,^[298] the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.^[299] While the literacy rate is high (96%),^[3] it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.^[300][301]

Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023.^[302] In the same year, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities.^[303] TheUniversity of Indonesia,Gadjah Mada University, and theBandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities.^[304]

Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers.^[305] The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as theProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.^[306] The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.^[307][308]

Indonesia has made significant progress in developing itshealthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure.^[309] In the late 1960s, the government began establishingcommunity health centres (puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas.^[309] With the help of theWorld Health Organisation in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.^[310] The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch ofJaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), auniversal health care managed by theSocial Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan).^[311] It is one of the world's largestsingle-payer systems, covering over 83% of the population (225.9 million) in 2021.^[312]

Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022.^[313] Primary healthcare is delivered throughpuskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,^[314] significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),^[315] a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),^[316] polio eradication in 2014,^[310] and decreasing cases of malaria.^[317]

Some chronic health issues persist, includingchild stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.^[318] Low air quality, particularly in major cities,^[319] contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with amaternal mortality rate the third highest in the region.^[320] Additionally, Indonesia has one of thehighest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.^[321]

The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years and has been influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe,^[322][323] Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country's multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity,^[257][246] distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, includingwayang puppet theatre,batik,angklung, thesaman dance, andpencak silat. Recent joint nominations addedpantun,kebaya, andkolintang to the list.^[324]

Indonesian arts encompass traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade.^[325] Bali'sartistic traditions, such as classicalKamasan andWayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted oncandi bas-reliefs from eastern Java.^[326] Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja'sTongkonan, Minangkabau'sRumah Gadang, Java'sPendopo, andDayaklonghouses each showcasing unique customs and histories.^[327] Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations.

Discoveries ofmegalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities,^{[328][329][330]} who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like theBorobudur andPrambanan temples,^[331] which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.

Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like theangklung,gamelan, andsasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as thegambus andqasida from the Middle East,^[332]keroncong from Portugal,^[333] anddangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.^[334] Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities andlanguage intelligibility.^{[335][336][337]}

With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have their origins in rituals and religious worship,^[338] such as the dance of witch doctors andHudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are gaining popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.^[339]

Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles. National costumes likebatik andkebaya are widely recognised, with roots in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures.^[340][341] Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batakulos, Malay and Minangkabausongket, and Sasakikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.^[341]

Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry, often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.^[342] Other forms of drama, such asLudruk,Ketoprak,Sandiwara,Lenong,^[343][344] and Balinese dance dramas, often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.^[345] Unique traditions like the MinangkabauRandai combine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals.^[346][347] Modern theatre, exemplified byTeater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.^[348]

The first film produced in the archipelago wasLoetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence withUsmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.^[349] During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order.^[350] Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such asPengabdi Setan (1980),Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) andWarkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.^[351]

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence.^[352] Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love,^[350] producing notable films such asKuldesak (1999) andAda Apa dengan Cinta? (2002).^[351] The 2022 filmKKN di Desa Penari set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.^[353] TheIndonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out theCitra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.

Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media.^[354] The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by the public broadcasterTVRI (1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels.^[355] Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998.^[355] Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercialInternet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994.^[356] By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.^[357] Internet penetration continues to grow annually.

Indonesian literature has roots inSanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strongoral tradition,^[359] while early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.^[360][361] Traditional forms such assyair,pantun,hikayat, andbabad dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such asSyair Abdul Muluk,Hikayat Hang Tuah,Sulalatus Salatin, andBabad Tanah Jawi. The establishment ofBalai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s.^[362] Influenced by the country's political and social landscape dynamics,^[362][363] modern literature includes works from notable figures likeChairil Anwar,Pramoedya Ananta Toer, andAyu Utami.

Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.^[364] Rice is the leadingstaple food and is served withside dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli),coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.^[365]

Some popular dishes, such asnasi goreng,gado-gado,mie ayam,bakso,sate, andsoto, are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chosetumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.^[366] Other popular dishes includerendang, one of the manyMinangkabau cuisines, along withdendeng andgulai. Another fermented food isoncom, which is similar in some ways totempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent inWest Java.^[367]

Badminton andfootball are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won theThomas andUber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along withweightlifting, badminton is the sport that contributes the most toIndonesia's Olympic medal tally.Liga 1 is the country's premier football league. On the international stage,Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in theFIFA World Cup in1938 as the Dutch East Indies.^[368] On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the1987,1991, and2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at theAFC Asian Cup was in1996.^[369]

Other popular sports includeboxing and basketball, which were part of the firstNational Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.^[370]Sepak takraw andkarapan sapi (bull racing) inMadura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such ascaci inFlores andpasola inSumba.Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,^[371] most recently in2011.^[372]

• List of Indonesia-related topics
• Index of Indonesia-related articles
• Outline of Indonesia