Rabbinic Judaism (Hebrew:יהדות רבנית‎,romanized: Yahadut Rabanit), also calledRabbinism,Rabbinicism, orRabbanite Judaism, has been an orthodox form ofJudaism since the 6th centuryCE, after the codification of theBabylonian Talmud. Rabbinic Judaism has its roots in thePharisaic school ofSecond Temple Judaism and is based on the belief thatMoses atMount Sinai received both theWritten Torah (Torah she-be-Khetav) and theOral Torah (Torah she-be-al Peh) from God. The Oral Torah, transmitted orally, explains the Written Torah. At first, it was forbidden to write down the Oral Torah, but after the destruction of theSecond Temple, it was decided to write it down in the form of theTalmud and other rabbinic texts for the sake of preservation.^[1][2]

Rabbinic Judaism contrasts withSadducee Judaism,Karaite Judaism, andSamaritanism, which do not recognize the Oral Torah as a divine authority nor the rabbinic procedures used to interpret Jewish scripture. Although there are now profound differences amongJewish denominations of Rabbinic Judaism with respect to the binding force ofhalakha (Jewishreligious law) and the willingness to challenge preceding interpretations, all identify themselves as coming from the tradition of theOral Law and the rabbinic method of analysis.

In 332 BCE, the Persians were defeated byAlexander the Great. After his demise, and the division of Alexander's empire among his generals, theSeleucid Kingdom was formed. During this time currents of Judaism were influenced byHellenistic philosophy developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably among theJewish diaspora inAlexandria, culminating in a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible known as theSeptuagint. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought isPhilo.^[3]

Hellenistic culture had a profound impact on the customs and practices of Jews, both inJudea and in the diaspora. These inroads into Judaism gave rise toHellenistic Judaism in the Jewish diaspora which sought to establish a Hebraic-Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language ofHellenism.

There was a general deterioration in relations between Hellenized Jews and other Jews, leading the Seleucid kingAntiochus IV Epiphanes to ban certainJewish religious rites and traditions. Consequently, the Jews who rejected Hellenism revolted against the Greek ruler leading to the formation of an independent Jewish kingdom, known as theHasmonean dynasty, which lasted from 165 BCE to 63 BCE. The Hasmonean dynasty eventually disintegrated in a civil war. The people, who did not want to continue to be governed by a Hellenized dynasty, appealed to Rome for intervention, leading to a total Roman conquest and annexation of the country, seeIudaea province.

Nevertheless, the cultural issues remained unresolved. The main issue separating the Hellenistic and other Jews was the application of biblical laws in a Hellenistic (melting pot) culture.^[4]

Hellenistic Judaism spread toPtolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE, and became a notablereligio licita throughout theRoman Empire, until its decline in the 3rd century concurrent with the rise ofGnosticism andEarly Christianity.

The decline of Hellenistic Judaism is obscure. It may be that it was marginalized by, absorbed into or became Early Christianity (see theGospel according to the Hebrews). TheActs of the Apostles at least report howPaul the Apostle preferredly evangelized communities ofproselytes andGodfearers, or circlessympathetic to Judaism: theApostolic Decree allowing converts to forgocircumcision made Christianity a more attractive option for interested pagans thanJudaism. See alsoCircumcision controversy in early Christianity. The attractiveness of Christianity may, however, have suffered a setback with its being explicitly outlawed in the 80s CE byDomitian as a "Jewishsuperstition", while Judaism retained its privileges as long as members paid theFiscus Judaicus. However, from a historical perspective,persecution of Christians seemed only to increase the number of Christian converts, leading eventually to the adoption of Christianity by the Roman emperorConstantine.

On the other hand, mainstream Judaism began to reject Hellenistic currents, outlawing use of the Septuagint (see also theCouncil of Jamnia). Remaining currents of Hellenistic Judaism may have merged intoGnostic movements in the early centuries CE.^{[citation needed]}

In the later part of theSecond Temple period (2nd century BCE), the Second Commonwealth of Judea (Hasmonean Kingdom) was established and religious matters were determined by a pair (zugot) which led theSanhedrin. The Hasmonean Kingdom ended in 37 BCE but it is believed that the "two-man rule of the Sanhedrin" lasted until the early part of the 1st century CE during the period of theRoman province of Judea. The last pair, Hillel and Shammai, was the most influential of the Sanhedrinzugot. Both werePharisees, but theSadducees were actually the dominant party while the Temple stood. Since the Sadducees did not survive theFirst Jewish–Roman War, their version of events has perished. In addition, Hillel's views have been seen as superior to Shammai's by Rabbinic Judaism. The development of anoral tradition of teaching called thetanna would be the means by which the faith of Judaism would sustain the fall of theSecond Temple.^[3]

Jewish messianism has its root in theapocalyptic literature of the 2nd to 1st centuries BCE, promising a future "anointed" leader orMessiah to resurrect the Israelite "Kingdom of God", in place of the foreign rulers of the time. This corresponded with theMaccabean Revolt directed against theSeleucids. Following the fall of theHasmonean kingdom, it was directed against theRoman administration ofIudaea Province, which, according toJosephus, began with the formation of theZealots during theCensus of Quirinius of 6 CE, although full scale open revolt did not occur until theFirst Jewish–Roman War in 66 CE. Historian H. H. Ben-Sasson has proposed that the "Crisis underCaligula" (37–41) was the "first open break" between Rome and the Jews even though tension already existed during the census in 6 CE and underSejanus (before 31 CE).^[5]

Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of theTorah (Written Law), which are called the Oral Torah or Oral Law, were originally anunwritten tradition based upon theLaw given to Moses onMount Sinai.^[6] All the laws in the Written Torah are recorded only as part of a narrative describingGod imparting these laws to Moses and commanding him to transmit them to the Jewish nation.

However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by rabbiJudah ha-Nasi ("Judah the Prince") in theMishnah,redactedc. 200 CE. TheTalmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and theGemara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship,Israel andBabylonia.^[7] Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called theJerusalem Talmud. It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Israel.^[7]

Judaism at this time was divided into antagonistic factions. The main camps were thePharisees,Saducees, andZealots, but also included other less influential sects. This led to further unrest, and the 1st century BCE and 1st century CE saw a number of charismatic religious leaders, contributing to what would become theMishnah of Rabbinic Judaism, includingYochanan ben Zakai andHanina Ben Dosa.

Following the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE and theexpulsion of the Jews from theRoman province of Judea, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities.

The destruction of the Second Temple was a profoundly traumatic experience for the Jews, who were now confronted with difficult and far-reaching questions:^[8]

• How to achieve atonement without the Temple?
• How to explain the disastrous outcome of the rebellion?
• How to live in the post-Temple, Romanized world?
• How to connect present and past traditions?

How people answered these questions depended largely on their position prior to the revolt. But the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans not only put an end to the revolt, it marked the end of an era. Revolutionaries like the Zealots had been crushed by the Romans, and had little credibility (the last Zealots died atMasada in 73). The Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to theTemple cult, disappeared. TheEssenes also vanished (or developed into Christians), perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the issues of the times that the destruction of the Second Temple was of no consequence to them; precisely for this reason, they were of little consequence to the vast majority of Jews.

Two organized groups remained: theEarly Christians, andPharisees. Some scholars, such asDaniel Boyarin and Paula Fredricksen, suggest that it was at this time, when Christians and Pharisees were competing for leadership of the Jewish people, that accounts of debates between Jesus and the apostles, debates with Pharisees, and anti-Pharisaic passages, were written and incorporated into theNew Testament.^{[citation needed]}

Of all the major Second Temple sects, only the Pharisees remained. Their vision of Jewish law as a means by which ordinary people could engage with the sacred in their daily lives, provided them with a position from which to respond to all four challenges, in a way meaningful to the vast majority of Jews.^{[citation needed]}

Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea through aProcurator at Caesarea and a Jewish Patriarch. A former leading Pharisee,Yohanan ben Zakkai, was appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word,Nasi, also meansprince, orpresident), and he reestablished theSanhedrin at Javneh under Pharisee control. Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the Temple, the rabbis instructed Jews to give money to charities and study in localsynagogues, as well as to pay theFiscus Iudaicus.

In 132, the EmperorHadrian threatened to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated toJupiter, calledAelia Capitolina. Some of the leading sages of the Sanhedrin supported arebellion (and, for a short time, an independent state) led by Simon bar Kozeba (also calledSimon bar Kokhba, or "son of a star"); some, such asRabbi Akiva, believed Bar Kokhba to be amessiah. Up until this time, a number of Christians were still part of the Jewish community. However, they did not support or take part in the revolt. Whether because they had no wish to fight, or because they could not support a second messiah in addition to Jesus, or because of their harsh treatment by Bar Kokhba during his brief reign, these Christians also left the Jewish community around this time.^{[citation needed]}

This revolt ended in 135 when Bar Kokhba and his army were defeated. The Romans then barred Jews from Jerusalem, untilConstantine allowed Jews to enter for one day each year, during the holiday ofTisha B'Av.^[9]

After the suppression of the revolt the vast majority of Jews were sent into exile; shortly thereafter (around 200),Judah haNasi edited together judgments and traditions into an authoritative code, theMishnah. This marks the transformation of Pharisaic Judaism into Rabbinic Judaism.

Although the rabbis traced their origins to the Pharisees, Rabbinic Judaism nevertheless involved a radical repudiation of certain elements of Pharisaism, elements that were basic toSecond Temple Judaism. The Pharisees had been partisan. Members of different sects argued with one another over the correctness of their respective interpretations. After the destruction of the Second Temple, these sectarian divisions ended. The termPharisee was no longer used, perhaps because it was a term more often used by non-Pharisees, but also because the term was explicitly sectarian. The rabbis claimed leadership over all Jews, and added to theAmidah thebirkat haMinim, a prayer which in part exclaims, "Praised are You O Lord, who breaks enemies and defeats the arrogant," and which is understood as a rejection of sectarians and sectarianism. This shift by no means resolved conflicts over the interpretation of the Torah; rather, it relocated debates between sects to debates within Rabbinic Judaism.^{[citation needed]}

The survival of Pharisaic or Rabbinic Judaism is attributed to RabbiYohanan ben Zakkai, the founder of theYeshiva (religious school) inYavne. Yavneh replaced Jerusalem as the new seat of a reconstituted Sanhedrin, which reestablished its authority and became a means of reuniting Jewry.

The destruction of the Second Temple brought about a dramatic change in Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism built upon Jewish tradition while adjusting to new realities. Temple ritual was replaced with prayer service in synagogues which built upon practices of Jews in the diaspora dating back to the Babylonian exile.

As the rabbis were required to face two shattering new realities, Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without autonomy, there was a flurry of legal discourse and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing.^[10] The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the committing of Oral Law into writing was first explained in the Epistle ofSherira Gaon and often repeated.^[11]

The Oral Law was subsequently codified in the Mishnah andGemarah, and is interpreted inrabbinic literature detailing subsequent rabbinic decisions and writings. Rabbinic Jewish literature is predicated on the belief that the Written Law cannot be properly understood without recourse to the Oral Law (theMishnah).

Much rabbinic Jewish literature concerns specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law; this body of interpretations is calledhalakha (the way).

TheTalmud contains discussions and opinions regarding details of many oral laws believed to have originally been transmitted to Moses. Some seeExodus 18 andNumbers 11 as a display of Moses' appointing elders as judges to govern with him and judge disputes, imparting to them details and guidance of how to interpret the laws of God while carrying out their duties.^{[citation needed]} The Oral Torah includes rules intended to prevent violations of the laws of the Torah and Talmud, sometimes referred to as"a fence around the Torah". For example, the written Torah prohibits certain types of travelling on the Sabbath; consequently, the Oral Torah prohibits walking great distances on the Sabbath to ensure that one does not accidentally engage in a type of travelling prohibited by the written Torah. Similarly, the written Torah prohibits plowing on the Sabbath; the Oral Torah prohibits carrying a stick on the Sabbath to ensure that one does not drag the stick and accidentally engage in prohibited plowing.

As therabbis were required to face a new reality, that of Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the location forsacrifice^[12] and study) and Judea without autonomy, there was a flurry of legal discourse, and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing.^[13] The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the committing of Oral Torah into writing was first explained in the Epistle ofSherira Gaon and often repeated.^[14]

The Oral Torah was subsequently codified in theMishnah andGemara, and is interpreted inrabbinic literature detailing subsequent rabbinic decisions and writings. Rabbinic Jewish literature is predicated on the belief that the Torah cannot be properly understood without recourse to the Oral Torah. It states that many commandments and stipulations contained in the Written Torah would be difficult, if not impossible, to keep without the Oral Torah to define them. For example, the prohibition to do any "creative work" (melakha) on the Sabbath, which is given no definition in the Torah, is given a practical meaning in the Oral Torah, which provides definition of what constitutesmelakha. Numerous examples exist of this general prohibitive language in the Torah (such as, "don't steal", without defining what is considered theft, or ownership and property laws), requiring—according to rabbinic thought—a subsequent definition through the Oral Torah. Thus Rabbinic Judaism claims that almost all directives, both positive and negative, in the Torah are non-specific in nature and require the existence of either an Oral Torah or some other method to explain them.^{[citation needed]}

Much rabbinic Jewish literature concerns specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law; this body of interpretations is calledhalakha (the way).

Originally, Jewish scholarship was oral. Rabbis expounded and debated the law (the written law expressed in the Hebrew Bible) and discussed theTanakh without the benefit of written works (other than the biblical books themselves), though some may have made private notes (megillot setarim), for example of court decisions. This situation changed drastically, however, mainly as the result of the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth in the year 70 CE and the consequent upheaval of Jewish social and legal norms. As the rabbis were required to face a new reality—mainly Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without autonomy—there was a flurry of legal discourse and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing.^[10][15]

The earliest recorded oral law may have been of themidrashic form, in whichhalakhic discussion is structured asexegetical commentary on the Pentateuch (Torah). But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, when Rabbi Judah haNasi redacted theMishnah (משנה).

The Oral Law was far from monolithic; rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School ofShammai and the School ofHillel. In general, all valid^{[citation needed]} opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud.

The Talmud has two components: theMishnah (c. 200CE), the first written compendium of Judaism's Oral Law; and theGemara (c. 500 CE), a discussion of the Mishnah and relatedTannaitic writings that often ventures onto other subjects and expounds broadly on the Tanakh.

The rabbis of the Mishnah are known asTannaim (sing.Tanna תנא). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to asAmoraim (sing.Amora אמורא).

The Mishnah does not claim to be the development of new laws, but merely the collection of existing oral laws, traditions and traditional wisdom. The rabbis who contributed to the Mishnah are known as theTannaim, of whom approximately 120 are known. The period during which the Mishnah was assembled spanned about 130 years, and five generations.

Most of the Mishnah is related withoutattribution (stam). This usually indicates that many sages taught so, or that Judah haNasi who redacted the Mishnah together with his academy/court ruled so. Thehalakhic ruling usually follows that view. Sometimes, however, it appears to be the opinion of a single sage, and the view of the sages collectively (Hebrew:חכמים,hachamim) is given separately.

The Talmud records a tradition that unattributed statements of the law represent the views ofRabbi Meir (Sanhedrin 86a), which supports the theory (recorded by RavSherira Gaon in his famousIggeret) that he was the author of an earlier collection. For this reason, the few passages that actually say "this is the view of Rabbi Meir" represent cases where the author intended to present Rabbi Meir's view as a "minority opinion" not representing the accepted law.

Judah haNasi is credited with publishing the Mishnah, although there have been a few edits since his time (for example, those passages that cite him or his grandson, RabbiYehuda Nesi'ah; in addition, the Mishnah at the end ofTractate Sotah refers to the period after Judah haNasi's death, which could not have been written by Judah haNasi himself). According to theIggeret ofSherira Gaon, after the tremendous upheaval caused by the destruction of the Temple and the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Oral Torah was in danger of being forgotten. It was for this reason that Judah haNasi chose to redact the Mishnah.

In addition to redacting the Mishnah, Judah haNasi and his court also ruled on which opinions should be followed, although the rulings do not always appear in the text.

As he went through the tractates, the Mishnah was set forth, but throughout his life some parts were updated as new information came to light. Because of the proliferation of earlier versions, it was deemed too hard to retract anything already released, and therefore a second version of certain laws were released. The Talmud refers to these differing versions asMishnah Rishonah ("First Mishnah") andMishnah Acharonah ("Last Mishnah").David Zvi Hoffmann suggests thatMishnah Rishonah actually refers to texts from earlier sages upon which Judah haNasi based his Mishnah.

One theory is that the present Mishnah was based on an earlier collection by Rabbi Meir. There are also references to the "Mishnah of Rabbi Akiva", although this may simply mean his teachings in general.^[16] It is possible that Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Meir established the divisions and order of subjects in the Mishnah, but this would make them the authors of a school curriculum rather than of a book.

Authorities are divided on whether Judah haNasi recorded the Mishnah in writing or established it as an oral text for memorisation. The most important early account of its composition, theIggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon of Sherira Gaon, is ambiguous on the point, although the "Spanish" recension leans to the theory that the Mishnah was written.

The Gemara is the part of the Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the Mishnah. In the three centuries following the redaction of the Mishnah by Judah ha-Nasi (c. 200 CE), rabbis throughoutPalestine andBabylonia analyzed, debated and discussed that work. These discussions form theGemara (גמרא).Gemara means "completion" (from theHebrewgamarגמר: "to complete") or "learning" (from theAramaic: "to study"). The Gemara mainly focuses on elucidating and elaborating the opinions of the Tannaim. The rabbis of the Gemara are known asAmoraim (sing.Amoraאמורא).

Much of the Gemara consists of legal analysis. The starting point for the analysis is usually a legal statement found in a Mishnah. The statement is then analyzed and compared with other statements used in differentapproaches to biblicalexegesis in rabbinicJudaism (or—simpler—interpretation of text inTorah study) exchanges between two (frequently anonymous and sometimes metaphorical) disputants, termed themakshan (questioner) andtartzan (answerer). Another important function of Gemara is to identify the correct biblical basis for a given law presented in the Mishnah and the logical process connecting one with the other: this activity was known astalmud long before the existence of the Talmud as a text.^[17]

Orthodox Judaism does not accept the scholarly view that Rabbinic Judaism came into being in the post-Second Temple era. Rather, it sees the Judaism of this period as continuing organically from the religious and cultural heritage of the Israelites, stemming from the Law given to Moses at Sinai onwards. According to this view, while the titlerabbi was not used earlier,Moses was the first rabbi (and is commonly referred to by Orthodox Jews as "Moses our Rabbi"), with the knowledge and laws received at Sinai being passed down from teachers to students through theera of the Judges, and theprophets (most of whom are seen as the "rabbis" of their time), through thesages of the late Second Temple period, and continuing until today.^[18]

• Synagogal Judaism, older and for a long time distinct from Rabbinic Judaism
• Jewish history

• Beth din

• Neusner, Jacob (1999).The Four Stages of Rabbinic Judaism. London; New York: Routledge.
• Neusner, Jacob (2002).Rabbinic Judaism: Theological System. Boston; Leiden: Brill Academic Publ.

• Britannica.com: Rabbinic Judaism