Punjab (/pʌnˈdʒɑːb,-ˈdʒæb,ˈpʊn-/;Punjabi:[pə̞ɲˈdʒäːb]^ⓘ; alsoromanised asPanjāb orPanj-Āb),^[b] also known as the Land of the Five Rivers, is a geopolitical,cultural, andhistorical region in South Asia. It is located in thenorthwestern part of theIndian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day easternPakistan andnorthwesternIndia. Pakistan's major cities in Punjab areLahore,Faisalabad,Rawalpindi,Gujranwala,Multan,Sialkot, andBahawalpur, while India’s areLudhiana,Amritsar,Chandigarh,Jalandhar,Patiala,Mohali, andBathinda.

Punjab ਪੰਜਾਬ (PunjabiGurmukhi) پنجاب (PunjabiShahmukhi)
Historical region
Nickname:  Land of the Five Rivers
Location of Punjab in South Asia
Coordinates:31°N74°E / 31°N 74°E /31; 74
Countries	Pakistan  India
Largest city	Lahore
Second largest city	Faisalabad
Named after	Five tributaries of theIndus River
Area
• Total	458,354.5 km2 (176,971.7 sq mi)
Population  (2011India &2017Pakistan)
• Total	c. 190 million[a]  Pakistan 115 million  India 75 million
Demonym	Punjabi
Demographics
• Ethnic groups	Punjabis Minor:Saraikis,Hindkowans,Haryanvis,Pashtuns,Himachalis,Dogras,Muhajirs,Kashmiris,Biharis[1]
• Languages	Punjabi,its dialects and varieties andothers
• Religions	Islam (60%) Hinduism (29%) Sikhism (10%) Christianity (1%) Others (<1%)
Time zones	UTC+05:30 (IST in India)
	UTC+05:00 (PKT in Pakistan)
Demographics based onBritish Punjab's colonial borders

Punjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to theNear East as early as the ancientIndus Valley civilization, dating back to 3000 BCE,^[3] followed bymigrations of theIndo-Aryan peoples. Agriculture has been the chief economic feature of the Punjab and formed the foundation ofPunjabi culture.^[3] The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following theGreen Revolution during the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, and has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan."^[3]

Punjab's history is a tapestry of conflict, marked by the rise of indigenous dynasties and empires. FollowingAlexander the Great's invasion in the 4th century BCE,Chandragupta Maurya allied with Punjabi republics to establish theMaurya Empire.^[4] Successive reigns of theIndo-Greek Kingdom,Kushan Empire, andIndo-Scythians followed, but were ultimately defeated by Eastern PunjabJanapadas such as theYaudheya,Trigarta Kingdom,Audumbaras,Arjunayanas, andKuninda Kingdom.^[5][6] In the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Punjab faced devastating Hunnic invasions, yet theVardhana dynasty emerged triumphant, ruling overNorthern India.^[7] The 8th century CE witnessed theHindu Shahis rise, known for defeating theSaffarid dynasty and theSamanid Empire. Concurrently, theTomara dynasty andKatoch Dynasty controlled eastern Punjab, resistingGhaznavid invasions.^[8]Islam took hold in Western Punjab under Ghaznavid rule. The Delhi Sultanate then succeeded the Ghaznavids in which theTughlaq dynasty andSayyid dynastySultans are described as Punjabi origin.^[9][10] The 15th century saw the emergence of theLangah Sultanate in south Punjab, acclaimed for its victory over theLodi dynasty.^[11] After theMughal Empire's decline in the 18th century, Punjab experienced a period of anarchy. In 1799 CE, theSikh Empire established its rule, undertaking conquests intoKashmir andDurrani Empire held territories, shaping the diverse and complex history of Punjab.

The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th centuryMughal Empire the Punjab region was divided into three, with theLahore Subah in the west, the DelhiSubah in the east and theMultan Subah in the south. Under theBritish Raj until thePartition of India in 1947, thePunjab Province encompassed the present Indianstates and union territories ofPunjab,Haryana,Himachal Pradesh,Chandigarh, andDelhi, and thePakistani regions ofPunjab, andIslamabad Capital Territory.

The predominantethnolinguistic group of the Punjab region are thePunjabi people, who speak theIndo-AryanPunjabi language.Punjabi Muslims are the majority inWest Punjab (Pakistan), whilePunjabi Sikhs are the majority inEast Punjab (India). Other religious groups includeHinduism,Christianity,Jainism,Zoroastrianism,Buddhism, andRavidassia.

The name Punjab is ofPersian origin, with its two parts (پنج,panj, 'five' andآب,āb, 'water') being cognates of theSanskrit wordsपञ्‍च,pañca, 'five' andअप्,áp, 'water', of the same meaning.^[2][12] The wordpañjāb is thus calque of Indo-Aryan "pañca-áp" and means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the riversJhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Sutlej, andBeas.^[13] All aretributaries of theIndus River, the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in theMahabharata, in which one of the regions is named asPanchanada (Sanskrit:पञ्चनद,romanized: pañca-nada,lit. 'five rivers').^[14][15] Earlier, the Punjab was known asSapta Sindhu in theRigveda orHapta Hendu inAvesta, translating into "The Land of Seven Rivers", with the other two being Indus andKabul.^[16] The ancientGreeks referred to the region asPentapotamía (Greek:Πενταποταμία), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab.^[17][18][19]

The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, theIndus Valley Civilization which flourished from about 3000 BCE and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following theIndo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE.^[20] Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known asMahajanapadas.^[20] The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly theMahabharata.^[20] The epic battles described in theMahabharata are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. TheGandharas,Kambojas,Trigartas,Andhra,Pauravas,Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab),Yaudheyas, and others sided with theKauravas in the great battle fought atKurukshetra.^[21] According to Fauja Singh and L. M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."^[22]

The earliest known notable local king of this region was known asKing Porus, who fought the famousBattle of the Hydaspes againstAlexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between riversHydaspes (Jhelum) andAcesines (Chenab);Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.^[23] He (alongsideAbisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom ofTaxila which was ruled by his extended family.^[23] When the armies of Alexander crossed the Indus in its eastward migration, probably inUdabhandapura, he was greeted by the ruler of Taxila,Omphis.^[23] Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.^[23] This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus.^[23] Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BCE; the exact site remains unknown.^[23] The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisiveGreek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources that were exaggerated.^[23]

Alexander later founded two cities—Nicaea at the site of victory andBucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory ofhis horse, who died soon after the battle.^[23][c] Later,tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with asarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.^[23][24] Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.^[23] When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".^[25] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.^[26][27][28] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.^[26]

After Alexander's death in 323 BCE,Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BCE,Antipater became the new regent.^[29] According toDiodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along theIndus River. However,Eudemus, who had served as Alexander'ssatrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.^[30]

Chandragupta Maurya, with the aid ofKautilya, had established his empire around 320 BCE. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in theuniversity at Taxila to educate him in the arts, sciences, logic, mathematics, warfare, and administration.Megasthenes' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which if true would mean his rule started earlier than 321 BCE. As Alexander never crossed theBeas River, so his territory probably lay in thePunjab region.^{[citation needed]} With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.^[31] He then defeated the Nanda rulers inPataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east,Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion ofBactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.^{[citation needed]} The chief of the Mauryan military was also always aYaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.^[32][33] The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.^[34]

Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed toChanakya, the author of theArthashastra. Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.^{[citation needed]}

In the 9th century, theHindu Shahi dynasty originating from the region ofOddiyana,^[35][36][37] replaced the Taank kingdom, ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan.^[20] The tribe of theGakhars/Khokhars, formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historianFirishta.^[38] The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to theSaffarid dynasty.^{[37][page needed]} He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage ofAmr al-Layth's preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raidingGhazna around 900 CE.^{[37][page needed]}

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE.^{[37][page needed]}Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas.^{[37][page needed]} This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).^{[37][page needed]}

TheTurkicGhaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab, gradually declining as a power until theGhuridconquest of Lahore byMuhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid rulerKhusrau Malik.^[40] Following the death ofMuhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by theDelhi Sultanate.

The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 inDelhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title ofGhiyath al-Din Tughluq after defeatingKhusrau Khan at theBattle of Lahrawat.

During Ghazi Malik's reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known asMuhammad bin Tughlaq, toDeogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part ofTelangana). His first attempt was a failure.^[41] Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again.^[42] This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attackingShamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over 1324–1325 CE,^[41] after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.

After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.^[43] He attacked and plunderedMalwa,Gujarat,Lakhnauti,Chittagong,Mithila and many other regions in India.^[44] His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions became commonplace all over the Indian subcontinent.^[45] Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351^[46] while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes inSindh andGujarat.^[47]

After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, the Tughlaq empire was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence; it was at this point thatFiruz Shah Tughlaq, Ghazi Malik's nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the titleSipahsalar. His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) fromDipalpur andAbohar according to the historianWilliam Crooke.^[48][49] The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh, while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He capturedCuttack, desecrated theJagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar inOrissa to pay tribute.^[50][51] He also laid siege to theKangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute.^[52] During this time, Tatar Khan ofGreater Khorasan attacked Punjab, but he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given byFeroz Shah Tughlaq to RajaKailas Pal who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.^[53]

Khizr Khan established theSayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of theDelhi Sultanate after the fall of theTughlaqs.^[54]

FollowingTimur's 1398 sack ofDelhi,^[55] he appointedKhizr Khan as deputy ofMultan (Punjab).^[56] He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.^[57][58] Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty.^[56] Khizr Khan did not take up the title ofsultan, but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur asRayat-i-Ala(vassal) of theTimurids - initially that of Timur, and later his sonShah Rukh.^[59][60] After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab,Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.^[61] Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came fromMultan andDipalpur.^[62]

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his sonMubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself asMuizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.^[63][64] He defeated the advancingHoshang Shah Ghori, ruler ofMalwa Sultanate and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.^[65] Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion ofJasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.^[66]

The last ruler of the Sayyids,Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour ofBahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.^[67]

In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief ofLangah (aJatZamindar tribe),^{[68][69][70][71]} established theLangah Sultanate inMultan after the fall of theSayyid dynasty. Husseyn Langah I (reigned 1456–1502) was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate. He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and capturedChiniot andShorkot from the Lodis. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led byTatar Khan andBarbak Shah, as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.^[11]

TheMughals came to power in the early 16th century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital atLahore. During the Mughal era,Saadullah Khan, born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists^[72] belonging to theThaheem tribe^[73] fromChiniot^[74] remainedgrand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656.^[74] Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era includeWazir Khan,^[75]Adina Beg Arain,^[76] andShahbaz Khan Kamboh.^[77] The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century.^[20] As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region.^[20] Contested by theMarathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of themisls, who expanded and established the Sikh Confederacy as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and territories north into theHimalayas.^[20]

In the 19th century, MaharajahRanjit Singh established theSikh Empire based in the Punjab.^[78] The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh capturedLahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in theSecond Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of theKhalsa from a collection of autonomousSikhmisls.^[79][80] At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from theKhyber Pass in the west to westernTibet in the east, and fromMithankot in the south toKashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces:Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital;Multan, also in Punjab;Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the19th most populous country at the time),^[81] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent tobe annexed by theBritish Empire.

The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following theFirst andSecond Anglo-Sikh Wars.^[82] Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of smallprincely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority.^[20] The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.^[20] Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, andRawalpindi became an important military installation.^[20] Most Punjabis supported the British duringWorld War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities.^[83]: 163 Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.^[20] At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.^[20] In 1919, ColonelReginald Dyer ordered troops under command to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs inAmritsar. TheJallianwala massacre fueled theIndian independence movement.^[20] Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.^[20] When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.^[20] Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.^[20] At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.^[20]

TheBritish Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During theindependence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, includingMadan Lal Dhingra,Sukhdev Thapar,Ajit Singh Sandhu,Bhagat Singh,Udham Singh,Kartar Singh Sarabha,Bhai Parmanand,Choudhry Rahmat Ali, andLala Lajpat Rai. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab.East Punjab (48%) became part of India, whileWest Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.^[84] The Punjab bore the brunt of thecivil unrest followingpartition, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.^{[85][86][87][88]}

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scalereligious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographerTim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately becameIndian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately becamePakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.^[89]

The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th centuryMughal Empire it referred to a relatively smaller area between theIndus and theSutlej rivers.^[90][91]

At its height in the first half of the 19th century, the Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km²).^[92][93][94]

The Punjab was a region straddling India and the AfghanDurrani Empire. The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire:

• Punjab region, toMithankot in the south
  • Punjab, Pakistan, excludingBahawalpur State
  • Punjab, India, south to areas just across theSutlej river
  • Himachal Pradesh, India, south to areas just across theSutlej river
  • Jammu Division,Jammu and Kashmir, India and Pakistan (1808–1846)
• Kashmir region, Pakistan/China^[95][96]
  • Kashmir Valley, India (1819–1846)
  • Gilgit,Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan (1842–1846)^{[citation needed]}
  • Ladakh, India (1834–1846)^[97][98]
• Khyber Pass, Pakistan/Afghanistan^[99]
  • Peshawar, Pakistan^[100] (taken in 1818, retaken in 1834)
  • Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and theFederally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan (documented fromHazara, taken in 1818, again in 1836 toBannu)^[101]
• Parts ofWestern Tibet,^[102] China (briefly in 1841, toTaklakot)^[103]

After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by theEast India Company to launch theFirst andSecond Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separateprincely states and theprovince of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative ofthe Crown.^[83]: 221

In British India, until thePartition of India in 1947, thePunjab Province was geographically a triangular tract of country of which theIndus River and its tributary theSutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being theLower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it fromKashmir andTibet. On the west it was separated from theNorth-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border ofDera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided fromBaluchistan by theSulaiman Range. To the south laySindh andRajputana, while on the east the riversJumna andTons separated it from theUnited Provinces.^[104] In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.

It encompassed the present dayIndian states ofPunjab, Haryana,Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts ofHimachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the formerprincely states which were later combined into thePatiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of thePunjab,Islamabad Capital Territory andKhyber Pakhtunkhwa.

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: theNorth-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:^{[105]: 2 [106]: 4}

1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division (includingHisar district,Loharu State,Rohtak district,Dujana State,Gurgaon district,Pataudi State, Delhi,Karnal district,Jalandhar district,Kapurthala State,Ludhiana district,Malerkotla State,Firozpur district,Faridkot State,Patiala State,Jind State,Nabha State,Lahore District,Amritsar district,Gujranwala District, andSheikhupura district);
2. Himalayan geographical division (includingNahan State,Simla District,Simla Hill States,Kangra district,Mandi State,Suket State, andChamba State);
3. Sub-Himalayan geographical division (includingAmbala district,Kalsia State,Hoshiarpur district,Gurdaspur district,Sialkot District,Gujrat District,Jhelum District,Rawalpindi District, andAttock District;
4. North-West Dry Area geographical division (includingMontgomery District,Shahpur District,Mianwali District,Lyallpur District,Jhang District,Multan District,Bahawalpur State,Muzaffargarh District, andDera Ghazi Khan District).

The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party–led independence movement.^[107] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most activeNational Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to theAkali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported theMuslim League.^[107]

Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided intoWest Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.^[108]

Historically,Lahore has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region, with a population of 11 million for the city proper.Faisalabad is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region. Other major cities areRawalpindi,Gujranwala,Multan,Ludhiana,Amritsar,Jalandhar, andChandigarh are the other cities in Punjab with a city-proper population of over a million.

The climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab, particularly for agriculture in the region. Climate is not uniform over the whole region, as the areas adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance.^[109]

There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During the hot season, from mid-April to the end of June, the temperature may reach 49 °C (120 °F). Themonsoon season, from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals andirrigation systems. The transitional period after the monsoon season is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to 5 °C (41 °F) at night and 12 °C (54 °F) by day. During the transitional period from winter to the hot season, suddenhailstorms and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.^[110]

The major language isPunjabi, which is written in India with theGurmukhi script, and in Pakistan using theShahmukhi script.^[120] The Punjabi language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab, whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by theUrdu language.

Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the various parts of the region.Dogri,^[121]Kangri,^[122] and otherwestern Pahari dialects are spoken in the north-central and northeastern parts of the region, whileBagri^[123] is spoken in south-central and southeastern sections. Meanwhile,Saraiki is generally spoken across a wide belt covering the southwest, while in the northwest there are large pockets containing speakers ofHindko andPothwari.^[124]

Hinduism is the oldest of the religions practised by Punjabi people, however, the termHindu was also applied over a vast territory with much regional diversity.^[125] Thehistorical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during theVedic period (1500–500 BCE), centered primarily in the worship ofIndra.^{[126][127][128][129]} The bulk of theRigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE,^[130] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between theYamuna andGanges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called theManusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward.^[131]

Later, thespread of Buddhisim and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth ofBuddhism andJainism in the Punjab.^[132]Islam was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.^[133][134] There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.^[135] The region became predominantlyMuslim due to missionarySufi saints whosedargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region.^[136]

The rise ofSikhism in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.^[131][137] A number of Punjabis during thecolonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.^[131]

A number of Punjabis during thecolonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.^[138] Additionally during the colonial era, the practice ofreligious syncretism amongPunjabi Muslims andPunjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab,Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions ofTazias, inMuharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment ofSabils (shelters where water andsharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like theChiraghan fair ofShalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."^[105]: 174
"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy ofVarnashrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... TheShamsis are believers inShah Shamas Tabrez ofMultan, and follow theImam, for the time being, of theIsmailia sect ofShias... they belong mostly to theSunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."^[105]: 130

— Excerpts from theCensus of India (Punjab Province), 1911

TheIndo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division includedHisar district,Loharu State,Rohtak district,Dujana State,Gurgaon district,Pataudi State,Delhi,Karnal district,Jalandhar district,Kapurthala State,Ludhiana district,Malerkotla State,Firozpur district,Faridkot State,Patiala State,Jind State,Nabha State,Lahore District,Amritsar district,Gujranwala District, andSheikhupura District.^{[105]: 2 [106]: 4}

TheHimalayan geographical division includedSirmoor State,Simla District,Simla Hill States,Bilaspur State,Kangra district,Mandi State,Suket State, andChamba State.^{[105]: 2 [106]: 4}

TheSub−Himalayan geographical division includedAmbala district,Kalsia State,Hoshiarpur district,Gurdaspur district,Sialkot District,Gujrat District,Jhelum District,Rawalpindi District, andAttock District.^{[105]: 2 [106]: 4}

TheNorth−West Dry Area geographical division includedMontgomery District,Shahpur District,Mianwali District,Lyallpur District,Jhang District,Multan District,Bahawalpur State,Muzaffargarh District,Dera Ghazi Khan District, and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract.^{[105]: 2 [106]: 4}

In the present-day, the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include significant minority faiths, such as Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims,Hindus,Sikhs and Christians.

Sikhism, founded byGuru Nanak is the main religion practised in the post-1966 Indian Punjab state. About 57.7% of the population of Punjab state isSikh, 38.5% isHindu, with the remaining population includingMuslims,Christians, andJains.^[151] Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities ofAmritsar,Anandpur Sahib,Tarn Taran Sahib,Fatehgarh Sahib andChamkaur Sahib.

The Punjab was home to severalSufi saints, and Sufism iswell established in the region.^[152] Also,Kirpal Singh revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.^[153]

The Punjab region is diverse. Historic census reports taken in thecolonial era details the maincastes are represented, alongside numerous subcastes andtribes (also known asJāti orBarādarī), formed parts of the various ethnic groups in the region, contemporarily known asPunjabis,Saraikis,Haryanvis,Hindkowans,Dogras,Paharis, and more.

The historical region of Punjab produces a relatively high proportion of the food output from India and Pakistan.^{[citation needed]} The region has been used for extensive wheat farming. In addition, rice, cotton,sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables are also grown.^[161]

The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. The Indian state of Punjab is currently the16th richest state or the eighth richest large state of India. Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's foodgrain production.^[162] Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.^[163]

Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of theworld's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.^[161] In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.^[164] In the Punjab region of Pakistan, 42.3% of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector.^[165]

Alternatively, Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in theprivate sector. Government schemes such as 'Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission' have brought enhanced employability in the private sector. As of October 2019^[update], more than 32,000 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12,000 have been skill-trained.^[166]