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Potawatomi

This article is about the people. For the language, seePotawatomi language.
"Pottawatomie" redirects here. For other uses, seePottawatomie (disambiguation).

ThePotawatomi (/ˌpɒtəˈwɒtəmi/ⓘ[1][2]), also spelledPottawatomi andPottawatomie (amongmany variations), are anIndigenous North American people of theGreat Plains, upperMississippi River, and westernGreat Lakes region. They traditionally speak thePotawatomi language, a member of theAlgonquian family. The Potawatomi call themselvesNeshnabé, acognate of the wordAnishinaabe. The Potawatomi are part of a long-term alliance, called theCouncil of Three Fires, with theOjibwe andOdawa (Ottawa). In the Council of Three Fires, the Potawatomi are considered the "youngest brother". Their people are referred to in this context asBodéwadmi, a name that means "keepers of the fire" and refers to the council fire of three peoples.[3]

Potawatomi
Bodéwadmi
Potawatomi at a rain dance in 1920
Total population
28,000
Regions with significant populations
 United States (Indiana,Kansas,Michigan,Oklahoma,Wisconsin,Illinois)
 Canada (Ontario)
Languages
English,Potawatomi
Religion
Catholicism,Methodism,Midewiwin
PersonBodéwadmi
     (Neshnabé)
PeopleBodéwadmik
     (Neshnabék)
LanguageBodwéwadmimwen
     (Neshnabémwen)

In the 19th century, some bands of Potawatomi were pushed to the west by European/American encroachment. In the 1830s the federal governmentremoved most from their lands east of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory—first in Kansas, Nebraska, and last to Oklahoma. Some bands survived in the Great Lakes region and today are federally recognized as tribes, in addition to the Potawatomi in Oklahoma.

Name

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The English "Potawatomi" is derived from theOjibweBoodewaadamii(g) (syncoped in theOttawa asBoodewaadmii(g)). The Potawatomi name for themselves (autonym) isBodéwadmi (without syncope:Bodéwademi; plural:Bodéwadmik), acognate of the Ojibwe form. Their name means "those who tend the hearth-fire", which refers to the hearth of theCouncil of Three Fires. The word comes from "to tend the hearth-fire", which isbodewadm (without syncope:bodewadem) in thePotawatomi language; the Ojibwe and Ottawa forms areboodawaadam andboodwaadam, respectively.

Alternatively, the Potawatomi call themselvesNeshnabé (without syncope:Eneshenabé; plural:Neshnabék), a cognate of OjibweAnishinaabe(g), meaning "original people".

Teachings

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The Potawatomi teach their children about the "Seven Grandfather Teachings" of wisdom, respect, love, honesty, humility, bravery, and truth toward each other and all creation.[4] Each principle teaches the equality and importance of their fellow tribesmen and respect for all of nature's creations.

The story that underlies these teaches the importance of patience and listening. It follows the Water Spider's journey to retrieve fire so that the other animals can survive the cold. As the other animals step forth one after another to proclaim that they shall be the ones to retrieve the fire, the Water Spider sits and waits while listening to her fellows. As they finish and wrestle with their fears, she steps forward and announces that she will be the one to bring fire back. As they laugh and doubt her, she weaves a bowl out of her web, using it to sail across the water to retrieve the fire. She brings back a hot coal out of which the animals make fire, and they celebrate her honor and bravery.

History

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Regalia at the Field Museum in Chicago

The Potawatomi are first mentioned in French records, which suggest that in the early 17th century, they lived in what is now southwesternMichigan. During theBeaver Wars they fled to the area aroundGreen Bay to escape attacks by both theIroquois and theNeutral Confederacy, who were seeking expanded hunting grounds. It is estimated that the Potawatomi numbered around 3,000 in 1658.

As an important part ofTecumseh's Confederacy, Potawatomi warriors took part inTecumseh's War and theWar of 1812. Their alliances switched repeatedly betweenUnited Kingdom and the United States as power relations shifted between the nations, and they calculated effects on their trade and land interests.

At the time of the War of 1812, a band of Potawatomi inhabited the area nearFort Dearborn, whereChicago developed. Led by the chiefs Blackbird and Nuscotomeg (Mad Sturgeon), a force of about 500 warriors attacked the United States evacuation column leaving Fort Dearborn. They killed most of the civilians and 54 of CaptainNathan Heald's force, and wounded many others.George Ronan, the first graduate ofWest Point to be killed in combat, died in this ambush. The incident is referred to as theBattle of Fort Dearborn. A Potawatomi chief namedMucktypoke (Makdébki, Black Partridge), counseled his fellow warriors against the attack. Later he saved some of the civilian captives who were being ransomed by the Potawatomi.[5]

French period (1615–1763)

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TheFrench period of contact began with early explorers who reached the Potawatomi in western Michigan. They also found the tribe located along theDoor Peninsula of Wisconsin. By the end of the French period, the Potawatomi had begun a move to theDetroit area, leaving the large communities in Wisconsin.[5]

British period (1763–1783)

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The British period of contact began when France ceded its lands after its defeat by Britain in theFrench and Indian War (the North American front of theSeven Years' War).Pontiac's Rebellion was an attempt by Native Americans to push the British and other European settlers out of their territory. The Potawatomi captured every British frontier garrison but the one at Detroit.[5]

The Potawatomi nation continued to grow and expanded westward from Detroit, most notably in the development of the St. Joseph villages adjacent to theMiami in southwestern Michigan. The Wisconsin communities continued and moved south along the Lake Michigan shoreline.[5]

United States treaty period (1783–1830)

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The United States treaty period of Potawatomi history began with theTreaty of Paris, which ended theAmerican Revolutionary War and established the United States' interest in the lower Great Lakes. It lasted until the treaties forIndian removal were signed. The US recognized the Potawatomi as a single tribe. They often had a few tribal leaders whom all villages accepted. The Potawatomi had a decentralized society, with several main divisions based on geographic locations:Milwaukee orWisconsin area,Detroit orHuron River, theSt. Joseph River, theKankakee River,Tippecanoe andWabash Rivers, theIllinois River and Lake Peoria, and theDes Plaines andFox Rivers.

The chiefs listed below are grouped by geographic area.

Milwaukee Potawatomi

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  • Manamol[5]
  • Siggenauk (Siginak: "Le Tourneau" or "Blackbird")[5]

Chicago Potawatomi

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Des Plaines and Fox River Potawatomi

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Illinois River Potawatomi

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Shabbona

St. Joseph and Elkhart Potawatomi

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Tippecanoe and Wabash River Potawatomi

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Fort Wayne Potawatomi

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Metea lithograph (1842)
  • Metea[7] (1760?–1827) (Mdewé, "Sulks")
  • Wabnaneme[5][7] on the Pigeon River

American removal period (1830–1840)

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The removal period of Potawatomi history began with the treaties of the late 1820s, when the United States created reservations.Billy Caldwell and Alexander Robinson negotiated for the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potowatomi in theSecond Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829), by which they ceded most of their lands in Wisconsin and Michigan. Some Potawatomi became religious followers of the "Kickapoo Prophet",Kennekuk. Over the years, the US reduced the size of the reservations under pressure for land by incoming European Americans.[citation needed]

The final step followed theTreaty of Chicago, negotiated in 1833 for the tribes by Caldwell and Robinson. In return for land cessions, the US promised new lands, annuities and supplies to enable the peoples to develop new homes. The Illinois Potawatomi were removed toNebraska and the Indiana Potawatomi toKansas, both west of the Mississippi River. Often annuities and supplies were reduced, or late in arrival, and the Potawatomi suffered after their relocations. Those in Kansas were later removed toIndian Territory (nowOklahoma). The removal of the Indiana Potawatomi was documented by a Catholic priest,Benjamin Petit, who accompanied the Indians on thePotawatomi Trail of Death in 1838. Petit died while returning to Indiana in 1839. His diary was published in 1941, over 100 years after his death, by the Indiana Historical Society.[8]

Many Potawatomi found ways to remain, primarily those in Michigan. Others fled to theirOdawa neighbors or to Canada to avoid removal to the west.

 
Leopold Pokagon

Bands

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Ed Pigeon, Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish cultural coordinator and language instructor, with son, 2006
 
Rain dance,Kansas,c. 1920

There are several active bands of Potawatomi.

Federally recognized Potawatomi tribes in the United States:

Canada – First Nations with Potawatomi people

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Population

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YearTotalUnited
States		Canada
1667[10]4,000
1765[11]1,500
1766[11]1,750
1778[11]2,250
1783[11]2,000
1795[11]1,200
1812[11]2,500
1820[11]3,400
1843[11]1,800
1854[10]4,4404,040400
1889[12]1,5821,416166
1908[11]2,7422,522220
1910[10]2,6202,440180
1997[13]25,000
1998[10]28,000
c. 2006[14][failed verification]21,00017,0004,000
201023,40021,000[14]2,400
2014[14][failed verification]4,500
20186,700[14]

Clans

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La Chauvignerie (1736) and Morgan (1877) mention among the Potawatomidoodems (clans) being:

  • Bené (Turkey)
  • Gagagshi (Crow)
  • Gnew (Golden Eagle)
  • Jejakwe' (Thunderer, i.e. Crane)
  • Mag (Loon)
  • Mekchi (Frog)
  • Mek (Beaver)
  • Mewi'a (Wolf)
  • Mgezewa (Bald Eagle)
  • Mkedésh-gékékwa (Black Hawk)
  • Mko (Bear)
  • Mshéwé (Elk)
  • Mshike' (Turtle)
  • Nme' (Sturgeon)
  • Nmébena (Carp)
  • Shage'shi (Crab)
  • Wabozo (Rabbit)
  • Wakeshi (Fox)

Ethnobotany

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They regardEpigaea repens as their tribal flower and consider it to have come directly from their divinity.[15]Allium tricoccum is consumed in traditional Potawatomi cuisine.[16] They mix aninfusion of the root ofUvularia grandiflora with lard and use it as salve to massage sore muscles and tendons.[17] They useSymphyotrichum novae-angliae as a fumigating reviver.[18]Vaccinium myrtilloides is part of their traditional cuisine, and is eaten fresh, dried, and canned.[19] They also use the root bark of the plant for an unspecified ailment.[20]

Location

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Trail of Death marker inWarren County, Indiana

The Potawatomi first lived in Lower Michigan, then moved to northern Wisconsin and eventually settled into northern Indiana and central Illinois. In the early 19th century, major portions of Potawatomi lands were seized by the US government. Following theTreaty of Chicago in 1833, by which the tribe ceded its lands in Illinois, most of the Potawatomi people were removed to Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi River. Many perished en route to new lands in the west on their journey throughIowa, Kansas, and Indian Territory, following what became known as the "Trail of Death".

Year or CenturyLocation[21]
1615East of Michilimackinac, MI
Islands of Door Peninsula, WI (1st Fr)
1640(until) with Hochunk (Winnebago) west of Green Bay, WI
1641Sault Ste. Marie, MI
1670Mouth of Green Bay, WI/MI
17th centuryMilwaukee River, WI
1780son St. Joseph River, MI/IN

Language

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Main article:Potawatomi language

Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie; in PotawatomiBodéwadmimwen orBodéwadmi Zheshmowen orNeshnabémwen) is aCentralAlgonquian language and is spoken around theGreat Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin. It is also spoken by Potawatomi inKansas, Oklahoma, and in southernOntario.[22] As of 2001, there were fewer than 1,300 people who speak Potawatomi as a first language, most of them elderly.[23] The people are working torevitalize the language, as evidenced by recent efforts such as the onlinePotawatomi languageDictionary created by theCitizen Potawatomi Nation[24] or the various resources available through thePokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians.[25]

The Potawatomi language is most similar to theOdawa language; it also has borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary fromSauk. Like the Odawa language, or the Ottawa dialect of theAnishinaabe language, the Potawatomi language exhibits a great amount of vowelsyncope.

Many places in theMidwest have names derived from the Potawatomi language, includingWaukegan,Muskegon,Oconomowoc,Pottawattamie County,Kalamazoo, andSkokie.

Potawatomi people

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See also

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References

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  1. ^"Potawatomi".Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.).Oxford University Press.(Subscription orparticipating institution membership required.)
  2. ^Clifton, James A. (1978). "Potawatomi." InNortheast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger. Vol. 15 ofHandbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pg. 725
  3. ^"Three Fires Council – CPN Cultural Heritage Center".Archived from the original on 2023-09-29. Retrieved2023-10-23.
  4. ^Humphries, Maria; Verbos, Amy Klemm (2014-08-01). "A Native American Relational Ethic: An Indigenous Perspective on Teaching Human Responsibility".Journal of Business Ethics.123 (1):1–9.doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1790-3.S2CID 143379265.
  5. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxEdmunds, R. David (1988).The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press (Civilization of the American Indian Series);ISBN 0-8061-2069-X
  6. ^"Aptakisic".Lake County, Illinois History. 25 March 2011.
  7. ^abcdefghijkMcPherson, Alan (1993).Indian Names in Indiana.
  8. ^Petit, Benjamin (1941).The trail of death; letters of Benjamin Marie Petit (in English and French). Indianapolis, IN: Indiana Historical Society. Retrieved22 June 2018.
  9. ^Dunn, Jacob Piatt (28 March 2018)."True Indian stories: with glossary of Indiana Indian names". Sentinel.Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved19 November 2020 – via Google Books.
  10. ^abcdSultzman, Lee (18 December 1998)."Potawatomi History". Archived fromthe original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved5 July 2019.
  11. ^abcdefghiHodge, Frederick Webb, ed. (1910).Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico: N-Z. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 291.
  12. ^Powell, John Wesley (1891).Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Washington. p. 50.Archived from the original on 2018-12-13. Retrieved2019-07-05.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^"Potawatomi".Ethnologue.Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved5 July 2019.
  14. ^abcd"Nishnabek Potawatomi Portal Websites".First Nation Seekers. n.d.Archived from the original on 9 January 2006. Retrieved29 April 2025.
  15. ^Smith, p. 118
  16. ^Smith, p. 104
  17. ^Smith, pp. 56, 57 64
  18. ^Smith, p. 50.
  19. ^Smith, p. 99
  20. ^Smith, p. 57
  21. ^Kubiak, William J. (1970).Great Lakes Indians: A Pictorial Guide. Baker Book House Company.
  22. ^Moseley, Christopher (2007).Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages, p. 74. Routledge.ISBN 0-7007-1197-X.
  23. ^Hinton, Leanne and Hale, Kenneth (2001).The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice, p. 342. Emerald Group Publishing.ISBN 0-12-349353-6.
  24. ^"Potawatomi Language Dictionary".www.potawatomidictionary.com. Retrieved2024-06-22.
  25. ^"Learning the Language – Pokagon Band of Potawatomi". Retrieved2024-06-22.

Cited sources

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  • Smith, Huron H. (1933). "Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians".Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee.7:1–230.

External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related toPotawatomi.
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