Phở orpho^[a] (UK:/fɜː/,US:/fʌ/^ⓘFUH,Canada:/fɔː/FAW;Vietnamese:[fəː˧˩˧]^ⓘ) is aVietnamese soup dish consisting ofbroth,rice noodles (bánh phở),herbs, andmeat – usuallybeef (phở bò), and sometimeschicken (phở gà).^[3][4] Phở is a popular food inVietnam^[5] where it is served in households, street-stalls, and restaurants country-wide. Residents of the city ofNam Định were the first to create Vietnamese traditional phở. It is considered Vietnam'snational dish.^{[citation needed]}

Phở

Type	Noodle soup
Course	Main course
Place of origin	Vietnam
Region or state	Northern Vietnam
Invented	1900–1907[1]
Serving temperature	Hot
Main ingredients	Rice noodles,bone broth, andbeef orchicken
Media: Phở

Phở is a relatively recent addition to the country's cuisine, first appearing in written records in the early 20th century^[6] inNorthern Vietnam. After theVietnam War,refugees popularized it throughout the world. Due to limited historical documentation, the origins of phở remain debated. Influences from both French and Chinese culinary traditions are believed to have contributed to its development in Vietnam, as well as to the etymology of its name.^[7][8][9][6] TheHanoi (northern) andSaigon (southern) styles of pho differ by noodle width, sweetness of broth, and choice ofherbs and sauce.

In 2017, Vietnam made December 12th the "Day of Pho".^[10]

Phở likely evolved from similar beef noodle soups found in neighboring countries, includingThailand, and the Chinese provinces ofGuangdong andYunnan, where such dishes are common. While rice noodles and spices used in the broth align with Chinese culinary traditions in the north, beef consumption was not widespread among the Vietnamese, who traditionally used buffaloes for farming. The demand for beef increased under French colonial rule, leading some to attribute phở’s origins to French, Chinese, or a combination of both influences.^[6] However, its exact origins remain a topic of debate. During French colonial rule (1887–1954), the French introducedpot-au-feu, a slow-cooked beef stew, and the use of beef bones for broth mirrors Frenchconsommé techniques.^[11] However dishes with a similar preparation to phở using water buffalo meat, such asxáo trâu have long been staples to the rural cuisine. Villagers inVân Cù say they ate phở long before theFrench colonial period.^[12] The modern form emerged between 1900 and 1907 in northernVietnam,^[1][7] southeast ofHanoi inNam Định Province, then a substantialtextile market. The traditional home of phở is reputed to be the villages ofVân Cù andDao Cù (orGiao Cù) in Đông Xuân commune,Nam Trực District, Nam Định Province.^[12][13]

Cultural historian and researcher Trịnh Quang Dũng believes that the popularization and origins of modern pho stemmed from the intersection of several historical and cultural factors in the early 20th century.^[14] These include improved availability of beef due to French demand, which in turn produced beef bones that were purchased by Chinese workers to make into a beef noodle similar to phở calledngưu nhục phấn (牛肉粉 or 牛腩粉) orngau juk fun.^[14][15] The Yunnan-style herbal beef soup is calledniupafu (牛扒呼) orngau paa fu in Cantonese. The demand for this dish was initially the greatest with workers from the provinces ofYunnan andGuangdong, who had an affinity for the dish due to its similarities to that of their homeland, which eventually popularized and familiarized this dish with the general population.^[15]

Phở was originally sold as a snack at dawn and dusk bystreet vendors, who shouldered mobile kitchens oncarrying poles (gánh phở).^[16] From the pole hung two wooden cabinets, one housing a cauldron over a wood fire, the other storing noodles, spices, cookware, and space to prepare a bowl of phở. The heavygánh was always shouldered by men.^[17] They kept their heads warm with distinctive felt hats calledmũ phở.^[18]

Hanoi's first two fixed phở stands were a Vietnamese-owned Cát Tường on Cầu Gỗ Street and a Chinese-owned stand in front of Bờ Hồ tram stop. They were joined in 1918 by two more on Quạt Row and Đồng Row.^[19] Around 1925, a Vân Cù villager named Vạn opened the first "Nam Định style" pho stand in Hanoi.^[20] Peddlerphở gánh declined in number around 1936–1946 in favor of stationary eateries.^[18]

In the late 1920s, various vendors experimented withhúng lìu,sesame oil,tofu, and evenLethocerus indicus extract (cà cuống). This "phở cải lương" failed to enter the mainstream.^[19][21]

Phở tái, served with cooked beef, had been introduced by 1930. Chicken pho appeared in 1939, possibly because beef was not sold at the markets on Mondays and Fridays at the time.^[19]

With thepartition of Vietnam in 1954, over a million people fledNorth Vietnam forSouth Vietnam. Phở, which was relatively less consumed in the South, suddenly became popular.^[13] No longer confined to northern culinary traditions, variations in meat and broth appeared, and additional garnishes, such as lime,mung bean sprouts (giá đỗ),culantro (ngò gai),cinnamon basil (húng quế),Hoisin sauce (tương đen), and hotSriracha sauce (tương ớt) became standard fare.^[7][13][19]Phở tái also began to rival fully cookedphở chín in popularity. Migrants from the North similarly popularizedbánh mì sandwiches.^[22]

Meanwhile, in North Vietnam, private phở restaurants were nationalized (mậu dịch quốc doanh)^[23] and began serving phở noodles made from old rice. Street vendors were forced to use noodles made of importedpotato flour.^[24][25] Officially banned as capitalism, these vendors prized portability, carrying their wares ongánh and setting out plastic stools for customers.^[26]

During the so-calledsubsidy period following the Vietnam War, state-owned pho eateries served a meatless variety of the dish known as pilotless pho (phở không người lái),^[27] in reference to the U.S. Air Force'sunmanned reconnaissance drones. The broth consisted of boiled water withMSG added for taste, as there were often shortages of various foodstuffs like meat and rice during that period.^[28] Bread or cold rice was often served as a side dish, leading to the present-day practice of dippingquẩy (deep-fried wheat flour dough) in pho.^[29]

Pho eateries were privatized as part ofĐổi Mới. Many street vendors must still maintain a light footprint to evade police enforcing the street tidiness rules that replaced the ban on private ownership.^[26]

In the aftermath of theVietnam War,Vietnamese refugees brought phở to many countries. Restaurants specializing in phở appeared in numerous Asian neighborhoods andLittle Saigons, such as in Paris and in major cities in the United States, Canada, and Australia.^[30][31] In 1980, the first of hundreds of phở restaurants opened in theLittle Saigon in Orange County, California.^[32]

In the United States, phở began to enter the mainstream during the 1990s, asrelations between the U.S. and Vietnam improved.^[31] At that time Vietnamese restaurants began opening quickly in Texas and California, spreading rapidly along the Gulf and West Coasts, as well as the East Coast and the rest of the country. During the 2000s, phở restaurants in the United States generated US$500  million in annual revenue, according to an unofficial estimate.^[33] Phở can now be found in cafeterias at many college and corporate campuses, especially on theWest Coast.^[31]

The word "pho" was added to theShorter Oxford English Dictionary in 2007.^[34]Phở is listed at number 28 on "World's 50 Most Delicious Foods," compiled byCNN Go in 2011.^[35] TheVietnamese Embassy in Mexico celebrated Phở Day on April 3, 2016, withOsaka Prefecture holding a similar commemoration the following day.^[36] Phở has been adopted by other Southeast Asian cuisines, including Lao andHmong cuisine.^[4] It sometimes appears as "Phô" on menus in Australia.^{[citation needed]}

In recent decades, phở has evolved beyond its traditional form, with new variations emerging to cater to modern tastes and preferences. One notable innovation is phở cuốn,^[37] where the ingredients of phở are wrapped in fresh rice noodles, creating a new dish that has gained popularity in Hanoi.

Phở's influence has even extended into the cocktail scene, with bars like Nê offering phở-inspired cocktails that incorporate the soup’s signature spices.^[38]

Additionally, chefs such as Peter Cung have brought phở into the realm of fine dining, as exemplified by his Michelin-starred restaurant Anan Saigon, where phở is deconstructed into a multi-course meal.^[39]

Official recognition has followed suit, with the Vietnamese government designating December 12 as the 'Day of Phở' in 2018, and in 2024, Hanoi and Nam Định-style phở were recognized as national intangible cultural heritage.^[40] These developments reflect the dish’s enduring relevance and its continued reinvention in both local and international culinary landscapes.

Reviews of 19th and 20th-century Vietnamese literature have found that pho entered the mainstream sometime in the 1910s. Georges Dumoutier's extensive 1907 account of Vietnamese cuisine omits any mention of phở.^[9] The word appears in a short story published in 1907.^[42] Nguyễn Công Hoan recalls its sale by street vendors in 1913.^[43] A 1931 dictionary is the first to definephở as a soup: "from the wordphấn. A dish consisting of small slices of rice cake boiled with beef."^[9][18][44]

Possibly the earliest English-language reference to pho was in the bookRecipes of All Nations, edited byCountess Morphy in 1935: In the book, pho is described as "anAnnamese soup held in high esteem ... made with beef, a veal bone, onions, a bay leaf, salt, and pepper, and a small teaspoon ofnuoc-mam (fish sauce)."^[45]

There are two prevailing theories on the origin of the wordphở and, by extension, the dish itself. As author Nguyễn Dư notes, both questions are significant to Vietnamese identity.^[16]

Some historians suggest a connection to the French due to the introduction of beef as a staple ingredient during French colonial rule.^[6] French settlers commonly ate beef, whereas Vietnamese traditionally ate pork and chicken and used cattle primarily asbeasts of burden.^[23][46] Gustave Hue (1937) equatescháo phở to the French beef stewpot-au-feu (literally, "pot on the fire").^[9] Accordingly, Western sources generally maintain thatphở is derived frompot-au-feu in both name and substance.^[2][9][47] However, several scholars dispute this etymology, pointing to the significant differences between the two dishes.^[9][20][48] Another suggestion of a separate origin is that phở in French has long been pronounced[fo] rather than[fø]: inJean Tardieu'sLettre de Hanoï à Roger Martin Du Gard (1928), a soup vendor cries "Pho-ô!" in the street.^[25]

Many Hanoians explain that the wordphở derives from French soldiers' ordering "feu" (fire) fromgánh phở, referring to both the steam rising from a bowl of phở and the wood fire seen glowing from agánh phở in the evening.^[18]

Food historian Erica J. Peters argues that the French has embraced phở in a way that overlooks its origins as a local improvisation, reinforcing "an idea that the French brought modern ingenuity to a traditionalist Vietnam".^[25] The connection between phở and the French culinary tradition remains widely debated but remains a prominent theory in discussions of its origins.^[6]

Another possible origin links phở to Chinese influences. Hue and Eugène Gouin (1957) suggest that phở may be a shortened form of lục phở and that it is derived from ngưu nhục phấn (Chinese: 牛肉粉; Cantonese Yale: ngau4 yuk6 fan2), which means "beef noodles." This dish was sold by Chinese immigrants in Hanoi. This etymology is supported by the 1931 dictionary definition of phở and the influence of Chinese culinary traditions, including the use of rice noodles and spices in the broth.^[9] ([ɲ] is an allophone of/l/ in some northern dialects of Vietnamese.)

Some scholars argue that phở (the dish) evolved fromxáo trâu, a Vietnamese dish common in Hanoi at the turn of the century. Originally eaten by commoners near theRed River, it consisted of stir-fried strips ofwater buffalo meat served in broth atoprice vermicelli.^[49] Around 1908–1909, the shipping industry brought an influx of laborers. Vietnamese and Chinese cooks set upgánh to serve themxáo trâu but later switched to inexpensive scraps of beef^[9][12] set aside by butchers who sold to the French.^[50] Chinese vendors advertised thisxáo bò by crying out, "Beef and noodles!" (Cantonese Yale:ngàuh yuhk fán;Vietnamese:ngưu nhục phấn).^[20] Eventually, thestreet cry became "Meat and noodles!" (Chinese:肉粉;Cantonese Yale:yuhk fán;Vietnamese:nhục phấn), with the last syllable elongated.^[13][18] Nguyễn Ngọc Bích suggests that the final "n" was eventually dropped because of the similar-soundingphẩn (traditional Chinese:糞;simplified Chinese:粪;lit. 'excrement').^[8][51] The French author Jean Marquet refers to the dish as "Yoc feu!" in his 1919 novelDu village-à-la cité.^[50] This is likely what the Vietnamese poetTản Đà calls "nhục-phở" in "Đánh bạc" ("Gambling"), written around 1915–1917.^[16][48]

Phở uses a common variety of Chinese rice noodle calledho fun, (traditional Chinese:河粉;simplified Chinese:河粉;Cantonese Yale:ho4 fen3) which is believed to have originated in the town of Shahe (Chinese: 沙河; pinyin: Shāhé; Jyutping: Sa1ho4*2), now part of theTianhe District ofGuangzhou in Guangdong province, southern China.^{[52][circular reference]} The Cantonese also use the word (Chinese:河;Cantonese Yale:ho4 ho4*2;lit. '(Sha)he noodles') as well as (Chinese:牛肉粉;Cantonese Yale:ngau4 yuk6 fan2;lit. 'cow meat noodles') to describePhở. The Chinese character 粉 (pinyin: fěn) is pronounced similarly to the Vietnamese 'phở'.^[6] The two words share a close phonetic resemblance and could be cognates, influenced by regional and dialectical pronunciation variations.

Phở is served in a bowl with a specific cut of flatrice noodles in clear beefbroth, with thin cuts of beef (steak, fattyflank, lean flank,brisket). Variations feature slow-cookedtendons,tripe, ormeatballs in southern Vietnam. Chicken pho is made using the same spices as beef, but the broth is made using chicken bones and meat, as well as some internal organs of the chicken, such as the heart, the undeveloped eggs, and the gizzard.^[53][54]

When eating at phở stalls in Vietnam, customers are generally asked which parts of the beef they would like and how they want it done.

Beef parts include:

• Tái băm: Rare beef patty, beef is minced by a chopping knife right before serving
• Tái: Medium rare meat
• Tái sống: Rare meat
• Tái chín: Mixture of medium rare meat and pre-cooked well-done meat, the default serving in most pho restaurants
• Tái lăn: Meat is sauteed before adding to the soup
• Tái nạm: Mix of medium rare meat with flank
• Nạm: Flank cut
• Nạm gầu: Brisket
• Gân: Tendons
• Sách: Beef tripe
• Tiết: Boiled beef blood
• Bò viên:Beef ball
• Trứng tái: Poached chicken egg (served in a separate bowl)

For chicken phở, options might include:

• Đùi gà: Chicken thigh
• Lườn gà: Chicken breast
• Lòng gà: Chicken innards
• Trứng non: Immature chicken eggs
• Trứng chần: chicken egg yolk

The freshly made rice noodles which are usually used are calledbánh phở tươi,sợi phở tươi or for short,phở tươi in Vietnamese, while the dried rice noodles are calledbánh phở khô,sợi phở khô or for short,phở khô.^[55][56][57] InNorth America, the semi dried pho noodles are labeled on the packaging asbánh phở tươi (fresh pho noodles).^[58][59]Pho noodles are usually medium-wide; however, people from different regions of Vietnam will prefer different widths.

The soup for beef phở is generally made by simmering beef bones,oxtails, flank steak, charred onion, charred ginger, and spices. For a more intense flavor, the bones may still have beef on them. Chicken bones also work and produce a similar broth. Seasonings can includeSaigon cinnamon or other kinds of cinnamon as alternatives (may be used usually in stick form, sometimes in powder form in pho restaurant franchises overseas),star anise, roastedginger, roastedonion,black cardamom,coriander seed,fennel seed, andclove.^[60] The broth takes several hours to make.^[54] For chicken phở, only the meat and bones of the chicken are used in place of beef and beef bone. The remaining spices remain the same, but the charred ginger can be omitted since its function in beef phở is to subdue the quite strong smell of beef.

The spices, often wrapped incheesecloth or a soaking bag to prevent them from floating all over the pot, usually contain cloves, star anise, coriander seed, fennel, cinnamon, black cardamom, ginger, and onion.

Careful cooks often roast ginger and onion over an open fire for about a minute before adding them to the stock, to bring out their full flavor. They also skim off all the impurities that float to the top while cooking; this is the key to a clear broth.Nước mắm (fish sauce) is added toward the end.

Different regions have different ways of eating pho that suit their taste and practice. The Northern pho is typically served withscallions,onions, andcilantro (coriander leaves). The Southern variant also addsThai basil andbean sprouts. Thaichili peppers,lime wedges,fish sauce,chili oil, hotchili sauce (such asSriracha sauce), pickled garlic (Northern style), orhoisin sauce (Southern style) may be added to taste as accompaniments.^[61][54][62] The Central pho is more special. On the table, they preparepickled papaya, andsate sauce.^[63]

Several ingredients not generally served with phở may be ordered by request. Extra-fatty broth (nước béo) can be ordered and comes with scallions to sweeten it. A popular side dish ordered upon request ishành dấm, or vinegared white onions.

The several regional variants of pho in Vietnam, particularly divided between "Northern phở" (phở Bắc) or "Hanoi phở" (phở Hà Nội), and "Southern phở" (phở Nam) or "Saigon pho" (phở Sài Gòn). Northern Vietnamese phở uses a savoury, clear broth, blanched wholegreen onion, and garnishes offered generally include only diced green onion and cilantro, pickled garlic, chili sauce andquẩy. The Northern pho is often described as subtle and light on spices while having a deep savory taste from beef bones.^[64][65] On the other hand, southern Vietnamese phở broth is sweeter and cloudier, and is consumed with bean sprouts, fresh sliced chili, hoisin sauce, and a greater variety of fresh herbs. Phở may be served with either phở noodles orkuy teav noodles (hủ tiếu).^[66] The variations in meat, broth, and additional garnishes such aslime,bean sprouts,ngò gai (culantro),húng quế (Thai basil), andtương đen (hoisin sauce),tương ớt (chili sauce) appear to be innovations made by or introduced to the South.^[7] Another style of northern phở isphở Nam Định fromNam Định city which uses more fish sauce in the broth and wider noodles.^[67] Other provincial variations exist where pho is served with delicacy meats other than beef or chicken, such as duck, buffalo, goat, or veal.

Phở has many variants including many dishes bearing the name "phở", many are not soup-based:

• Phở sốt vang:Wine-sauced pho, with beef stewed in red wine.
• Phở tái lăn: pho with rare beef quickly stir-fried before serving.
• Phở xào: sauteed pho noodles with beef and vegetables.
• Phở áp chảo: similar tophở xào but stir-fried with more oil and gets more burned.
• Phở cuốn:rolled pho, with ingredients rolled up and eaten as agỏi cuốn.
• Phở trộn:mixed pho, noodles and fresh herbs and dressings, served as a salad.
• Phở chấm:dipping pho, with the noodles and broth served separately.
• Phở chiên phồng: This variant is the same as the previous but without eggs and looks like pillows
• Phở chiên trứng: This means a variant that pho is deep-fried with eggs.
• Lẩu phở: Using deconstructed phở ingredients and eaten as ahotpot.

Other local variances or dishes called phở:

• Phở chua: meaningsour phở is a delicacy fromLạng Sơn city.^[68]
• Phở khô Gia Lai: an unrelated noodle dish fromGia Lai, similar tohủ tiếu.
• Phở sắn: a tapioca noodle dish fromQuế Sơn District ofQuảng Nam.
• Phở sa tế: phở noodles with chili and peanut sauce and venison meat, came fromTeochew immigrants in southern Vietnam.
• Phở vịt: duck phở, a specialty ofCao Bằng andLạng Sơn provinces.
• Phở gan cháy: meaning grilled liver pho, a specialty found inBắc Ninh city.
• Phở trâu:Buffalo pho, a specialty ofNam Định andHà Nam provinces.
• Phở dê:Goat pho, a specialty ofNinh Bình province.
• Phở đỏ: made from red rice, a specialty ofHà Giang highland.
• Phở xíu chấm: a dish served with grilled pork and a specialy ofNam Định city.
• Phở Lào or Laos phở is the Vietnamese name ofKhao piak sen.

Vietnamese beef soup can also refer tobún bò Huế, which is a spicy beef noodle soup associated withHuế in central Vietnam.

After theFall of Saigon in 1975, thePhilippines welcomed refugees into its territories, resulting in thousands of Vietnamese from southern Vietnam taking shelter on the Filipino island ofPalawan. The Vietnamese immigrants brought with them part of their culture which influenced the Filipinos of the island, and vice versa. A notable culinary legacy is a pho-like Filipino dish popular in Palawan island that locals callchao long (not to be confused with the Vietnamese porridge calledchao long). The Filipinochao long is a noodle dish, which is a combination of broth, protein (beef, pork, and/or chicken), rice noodles, mung bean sprouts, and basil leaves. It is accompanied by a Filipino citrus calledcalamansi and served with a bread similar to Vietnamesebánh mì, which the locals refer to as "French bread".^[69][70]

Famous phở shops inHanoi are Phở Bát Đàn, Phở Thìn Bờ Hồ, Phở Thìn Lò Đúc, Phở 10 Lý Quốc Sư. In 2016,BBC noted Pho 10 Ly Quoc Su to be among the best pho addresses in Vietnam.^[64] Phở Thìn Lò Đúc has also opened foreign branches in Australia, Japan and the U.S.^[71]

Famous phở shops inSaigon includedPhở Bắc Hải,Phở Công Lý,Phở Tàu Bay,Phở Tàu Thủy, andPhở Bà Dậu. Pasteur Street (phố phở Pasteur) was a street famous for its beef phở, while Hien Vuong Street (phố phở Hiền Vương) was known for its chicken phở.^[72] AtPhở Bình, American soldiers dined asNational Liberation Front agents planned theTết Offensive just upstairs.^[73][74] Nowadays in Ho Chi Minh City, well-known restaurants include:Phở Hùng,Phở Hòa Pasteur,^[75] andPhở 2000, which U.S. PresidentBill Clinton visited in 2000.^[31][46]

One of the largest phở chains in Vietnam isPho 24, a subsidiary ofHighlands Coffee, with 60 locations in Vietnam and 20 abroad.^[76]

The largest phở chain in the United States isPhở Hòa, which operates over 70 locations in seven countries.^[31][77][78] A similar restaurant namedPho 75 serves in theWashington, D.C., andPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania, areas in the United States.^[79] Numbers in the restaurant name are "lucky" numbers for the owners: culturally lucky numbers or to mark a date in Vietnam or their personal history.^[80]

Many phở restaurants in the United States offer oversized helpings with names such as "train phở" (phở xe lửa), "airplane phở" (phở tàu bay), or "California phở" (phở Ca Li).^[16][18][29] Some restaurants have offered a phởeating challenge, with prizes for finishing as much as 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of phở in one sitting,^[81] or have auctioned special versions costing $5,000.^[82][83]

• Warwicker, Michelle; Taylor, Anna-Louise (2013-09-27)."What is Vietnamese pho?".BBC Food.
• Pho with Hanoi wine sauce