Movatterモバイル変換

[0]ホーム
URL:

Wikipedia

Pagoda

For other uses, seePagoda (disambiguation).
"Five-storied pagoda" redirects here. It should not be confused with theZhenhai Tower (Guangzhou) or with the novelThe Five-Storied Pagoda.
Not to be confused withPagode.

Apagoda is a tieredtower with multipleeaves common toThailand,Cambodia,Nepal,India,China,Japan,Korea,Myanmar,Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most oftenBuddhist, but sometimesTaoist orHindu, and were often located in or nearviharas. The pagoda traces its origins to thestupa, while its design was developed in ancientIndia.[1] Chinese pagodas (Chinese:塔;pinyin:Tǎ) are a traditional part ofChinese architecture. In addition to religious use, since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been praised for the spectacular views they offer, and many classical poems attest to the joy of scaling pagodas.

Top to bottom, from left to right: Pagoda ofHōryū-ji, Japan;Liuhe Pagoda, Hangzhou, China;Giant Wild Goose Pagoda ofXi'an, China; Phước Duyên Pagoda,Thiên Mụ Temple, Vietnam;Seokgatap ofBulguksa, South Korea;Prashar Lake temple,Himachal Pradesh, India;Shwedagon Pagoda ofYangon, Myanmar

The oldest and tallest pagodas were built of wood, but most that survived were built of brick or stone. Some pagodas are solid with no interior. Hollow pagodas have no higher floors or rooms, but the interior often contains an altar or a smaller pagoda, as well as a series of staircases for the visitor to climb to see the view from an opening on one side of each tier. Most have between three and 13 tiers (almost always an odd number) and the classic gradual tiered eaves.[2][3]

In some countries, the term may refer to other religious structures. In Vietnam and Cambodia, due to French translation, the English termpagoda is a more generic term referring to aplace of worship, althoughpagoda is not an accurate word to describe a Buddhistvihāra. The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms specific to each region. Many Philippine bell towers are highly influenced by pagodas through Chinese workers hired by theSpaniards.

Etymology

edit

One proposed etymology is from aSouth Chinese pronunciation of the term for an eight-cornered tower, Chinese:八角塔, and reinforced by the name of a famous pagoda encountered by many early European visitors to China, the"Pázhōu tǎ" (Chinese:琶洲塔), standing just south ofGuangzhou atWhampoa Anchorage.[4] Another proposed etymology isPersianbutkada, frombut, "idol" andkada, "temple, dwelling."[5]

Yet another etymology is from the Sinhala worddāgaba, derived from Sanskritdhātugarbha or Palidhātugabbha: "relic womb/chamber" or "reliquary shrine", i.e. astupa, by way of Portuguese.[6][failed verification]

History

edit
 
Kek Lok Si pagoda tiers labelled with their architectural styles

The origin of the pagoda can be traced to thestupa (3rd century BCE).[7] The stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used as a commemorative monument to house sacred relics and writings.[7][8] In East Asia, the architecture of Chinese towers andChinese pavilions blended into pagoda architecture, eventually also spreading to Southeast Asia. Their construction was popularized by the efforts ofBuddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to honor Buddhist relics.[9]

Japan has a total of 22 five-storied timber pagodas constructed before 1850.[10]

China

edit
 
TheLingxiao Pagoda ofZhengding, Hebei, built in 1045 AD during theSong dynasty, with little change in later renovations

The earliest styles of Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base, withoctagonal-base towers emerging in the 5th–10th centuries. The highest Chinese pagoda from the pre-modern age is theLiaodi Pagoda of Kaiyuan Monastery, Dingxian,Hebei, completed in the year 1055 AD underEmperor Renzong of Song and standing at a total height of 84 m (275 ft). Although it no longer stands, the tallest pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the 100-metre-tall wooden pagoda (330 ft) ofChang'an, built byEmperor Yang of Sui,[11] and possibly the short-lived 6th centuryYongning Pagoda (永宁宝塔) ofLuoyang at roughly 137 metres. The tallest pre-modern pagoda still standing is the Liaodi Pagoda. In April 2007 a new wooden pagodaTianning Temple ofChangzhou was opened to the public, the tallest in China, standing 154 m (505 ft).

Symbolism and geomancy

edit
 
TheXumi Pagoda, built in 636 AD during theTang dynasty.

Chineseiconography is noticeable inChinese and other East Asian pagoda architectures. Also prominent is Buddhist iconography such as the image of theShakyamuni andGautama Buddha in theabhaya mudra.[12][13] In an article on Buddhist elements inHan dynasty art,Wu Hung suggests that in these temples,Buddhist symbolism was fused with native Chinese traditions into a unique system of symbolism.[14]

Some believed reverence at pagodas could bring luck to students taking the Chinese civil serviceexaminations.[15] When a pagoda of Yihuang County inFuzhou collapsed in 1210, local inhabitants believed the disaster correlated with the recent failure of many exam candidates in the prefectural examinations[16] The pagoda was rebuilt in 1223 and had a list inscribed on it of the recently successful examination candidates, in hopes that it would reverse the trend and win the county supernatural favor.[16]

Architecture

edit
 
Floor-support structure in a corner of theHoryuji temple.

Pagodas come in many different sizes,[17] with taller ones often attractinglightning strikes, inspiring a tradition that thefinial decoration of the top of the structure can seize demons.[18] Today many pagodas have been fitted with wires making the finial into alightning rod.[19]

Wooden pagodas possess certain characteristics thought to resist earthquake damage. These include the friction damping andsliding effect of the complex woodendougong joints,[20] the structural isolation of floors, the effects of wide eaves analogous to a balancing toy, and theShinbashira phenomenon that the center column is bolted to the rest of the superstructure.[21]

Pagodas traditionally have an odd number of levels, a notable exception being the eighteenth-centuryorientalistpagoda designed bySir William Chambers atKew Gardens in London.

The pagodas in Himalayas are derived fromNewari architecture, very different from Chinese and Japanese styles.[22]

Construction materials

edit

Wood

edit
 
The 40-metre-tall (130 ft)Songyue Pagoda of 523 AD, the oldest extant stone pagoda in China

During theSouthern and Northern dynasties, pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient Chinese structures. Wooden pagodas are resistant to earthquakes, and no Japanese pagoda has been destroyed by an earthquake,[21] but they are prone to fire, natural rot, and insect infestation.

Examples of wooden pagodas:

The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden pagoda construction. The famousTang dynasty poet,Du Mu, once wrote:

480 Buddhist temples of the Southern Dynasties,
uncountable towers and pagodas stand in the misty rain.[clarification needed]

The oldest standing fully wooden pagoda in China today is thePagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying County,Shanxi, built in the 11th century during the Song/Liao dynasty (seeSong architecture).

Transition to brick and stone

edit
 
The brick-constructedGiant Wild Goose Pagoda, built by 652 and rebuilt in 704, during theTang dynasty.

During theNorthern Wei andSui dynasties (386–618) experiments began with the construction of brick and stone pagodas. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still the most common material. For example,Emperor Wen of theSui dynasty (reigned 581–604) once issued a decree for all counties and prefectures to build pagodas to a set of standard designs, however since they were all built of wood none have survived. Only theSongyue Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of brick in 523 AD.

Brick

edit

The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40-metre-tallSongyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country,Henan.[23] This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during theNorthern Wei dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries.[23] Much like the later pagodas found during the following Tang dynasty, this temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well as aspire crowning the top. Its walls are 2.5 m thick, with a ground floor diameter of 10.6 m. Another early brick pagoda is theSui dynastyGuoqing Pagoda built in 597.

Stone

edit

The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is aFour Gates Pagoda atLicheng, Shandong, built in 611 during theSui dynasty. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is built in the pavilion style.

Brick and stone

edit

One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a three-storey construction built in the (first)Jin dynasty (266–420), byWang Jun ofXiangyang. However, it is now destroyed.

Brick and stone went on to dominateTang,Song,Liao andJin dynasty pagoda construction. An example is theGiant Wild Goose Pagoda (652 AD), built during the early Tang dynasty. ThePorcelain Pagoda of Nanjing has been one of the most famous brick and stone pagoda in China throughout history.The Zhou dynasty started making the ancient pagodas about 3,500 years ago.

De-emphasis over time

edit
 
Jade Buddha Temple in Shanghai follows the Song dynasty multi-courtyard design, and does not feature a pagoda. The main hall is at the center.

Pagodas, in keeping with the tradition of theWhite Horse Temple, were generally placed in the center of temples until theSui andTang dynasties. During the Tang, the importance of the main hall was elevated and the pagoda was moved beside the hall, or out of the temple compound altogether. In the early Tang,Daoxuan wrote aStandard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction in which the main hall replaced the pagoda as the center of the temple.

The design of temples was also influenced by the use of traditional Chinese residences as shrines, after they were philanthropically donated by the wealthy or the pious. In such pre-configured spaces, building a central pagoda might not have been either desirable or possible.

In theSong dynasty (960–1279), theChan (Zen) sect developed a new 'seven part structure' for temples. The seven parts—the Buddha hall, dharma hall, monks' quarters, depository, gate, pure land hall and toilet facilities—completely exclude pagodas, and can be seen to represent the final triumph of the traditional Chinese palace/courtyard system over the original central-pagoda tradition established 1000 years earlier by theWhite Horse Temple in 67. Although they were built outside of the main temple itself, large pagodas in the tradition of the past were still built. This includes the twoMing dynasty pagodas of Famen Temple and the Chongwen Pagoda inJingyang ofShaanxi.

A prominent, later example of converting a palace to a temple is Beijing'sYonghe Temple, which was the residence ofYongzheng Emperor before he ascended the throne. It was donated for use as a lamasery after his death in 1735.

Styles of eras

edit

Han dynasty

edit

Examples of Han dynasty era tower architecture predating Buddhist influence and the full-fledged Chinese pagoda can be seen in the four pictures below. Michael Loewe writes that during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) period, multi-storied towers were erected for religious purposes, asastronomical observatories, aswatchtowers, or as ornate buildings that were believed to attract the favor ofspirits, deities, and immortals.[24]

  • Ancient Chinese model of two residential towers, made ofearthenware during theHan dynasty, 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD, excavated by archaeologists in 1993.
  • Side view of a Han pottery tower model with a mid-floor balcony and a courtyard gatehouse flanked by smaller towers; thedougong support brackets are clearly visible.
  • A Western-Han model of a watchtower with human figures on its balconies (including crossbowmen) and a gatehouse and courtyard on the first floor.
  • Among a large set of architectural models, three Eastern Han dynasty watchtowers stand in the rear of this display.

Sui and Tang

edit

Pagodas built during the Sui and Tang dynasty usually had a square base, with a few exceptions such as the Daqin Pagoda:

Dali kingdom

edit

Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan

edit

Pagodas of the Five Dynasties, Northern and Southern Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties incorporated many new styles, with a greater emphasis on hexagonal and octagonal bases for pagodas:

Ming and Qing

edit

Pagodas in the Ming and Qing dynasties generally inherited the styles of previous eras, although there were some minor variations:

Notable pagodas

edit
 
Taleju Temple, a 16th-century temple inKathmandu Durbar Square
 
Changu Narayan Temple, Bhaktapur, Nepal

Tiered towers with multiple eaves:

Stupas called "pagodas":

Places called "pagoda" but which are not tiered structures with multiple eaves:

Structures that evoke pagoda architecture:

  • TheDragon House of Sanssouci Park, an eighteenth-century German attempt at imitating Chinese architecture
  • The Panasonic Pagoda, or Pagoda Tower, at theIndianapolis Motor Speedway. This 13-story pagoda, used as the control tower for races such as theIndy 500, has been transformed several times since it was first built in 1913.[25]
  • Jin Mao Tower in Shanghai, built between 1994 and 1999
  • Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, thetallest buildings in the world from 1998 to 2004
  • Taipei 101 in Taiwan, record setter for height (508 m) in 2004 and currently (2021) the world's tenth tallest completed building

Structures not generally thought of as pagodas, but which have some pagoda-like characteristics:

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^"Pagoda | History, Design & Construction | Britannica".www.britannica.com.
  2. ^Architecture and Building. W.T. Comstock. 1896. p. 245.
  3. ^Steinhardt, 387.
  4. ^Chinese Origin of the Term Pagoda: Liang Sicheng's Proposed EtymologyAuthors: David Robbins TienPublication: Acta Orientalia, volume 77 (2016), pp 133–144David Robbins Tien, Gerald Leonard CohenPublication: Arts, Languages and Philosophy Faculty Research & Creative WorksDownloadTien, D. R., & Cohen, G. L. (2017)http://scholarsmine.mst.edu/artlan_phil_facwork. David Robbins Tien. Comments on Etymology, October 2014, Vol.44, no. 1, pp. 2–6.
  5. ^Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Second Edition. Random House, New York, 1993.
  6. ^Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary by Henry Yule & Arthur Coke Burnell, first printed 1896, reprinted by Wordsworth Editions, 1996, p. 291.Online Etymology Dictionary by Douglas Harper, s.v.pagoda, athttp://www.etymonline.com/ (Accessed 29 April 2016)
  7. ^abPagoda at theEncyclopædia Britannica
  8. ^A World History of Architecture. Michael W. Fazio, Marian Moffett, Lawrence Wodehouse. Published 2003. McGraw-Hill Professional.ISBN 0-07-141751-6.
  9. ^The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. John Kieschnick. Published 2003.Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-09676-7.
  10. ^Hanazato, Toshikazu; Minowa, Chikahiro; Niitsu, Yasushi; Nitto, Kazuhiko; Kawai, Naohito; Maekawa, Hideyuki; Morii, Masayuki (2010)."Seismic and Wind Performance of Five-Storied Pagoda of Timber Heritage Structure"(PDF).Advanced Materials Research.133–134:79–95.doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.133-134.79.S2CID 135707895.
  11. ^Benn, 62.
  12. ^The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture By John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-09676-7. p. 83
  13. ^The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-09676-7. page 83
  14. ^The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-09676-7. page 84
  15. ^Brook, 7.
  16. ^abHymes, 30.
  17. ^Terry, T. Philip (1914).Terry's Japanese Empire. Houghton Mifflin. p. 257.
  18. ^Christel, Pascal (2020).Splendour of Buddhism in Burma: A Journey to the Golden Land. Partridge Publishing Singapore.
  19. ^Spacey, John."Japanese Temple Architecture in 60 Seconds".Japan Talk. Retrieved7 January 2021.
  20. ^Tokmakova, Anastasia (24 July 2017)."2,500-year-old Chinese wood joints that make buildings earthquake-proof". Archinect.
  21. ^abKoji NAKAHARA; Toshiharu HISATOKU; Tadashi NAGASE; Yoshinori TAKAHASHI (2000)."EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE OF ANCIENT FIVE-STORY PAGODA STRUCTURE OF HORYU-JI TEMPLE IN JAPAN"(PDF). No. 1229/11/A. 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
  22. ^Chihara, Daigorō (1996).Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia. BRILL. p. 28.ISBN 90-04-10512-3.
  23. ^abSteinhardt, 383.
  24. ^Loewe (1968), 133.
  25. ^"Indianapolis 500 Traditions :: Indianapolis 500". 1 May 2008. Archived fromthe original on 1 May 2008.

References

edit
  • Benn, Charles (2002).China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-517665-0.
  • Brook, Timothy. (1998).The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN 0-520-22154-0
  • Fazio, Michael W., Moffett, Marian and Wodehouse, Lawrence.A World History of Architecture. Published 2003. McGraw-Hill Professional.ISBN 0-07-141751-6.
  • Fu, Xinian. (2002). "The Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties," inChinese Architecture, 61–90. Edited by Nancy S. Steinhardt. New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN 0-300-09559-7.
  • Govinda, A. B.Psycho-cosmic symbolism of the Buddhist stupa. 1976, Emeryville, California. Dharma Publications.
  • Hymes, Robert P. (1986). Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-Chou, Chiang-Hsi, in Northern and Southern Sung. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-30631-0.
  • Kieschnick, John.The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. Published 2003. Princeton University Press .ISBN 0-691-09676-7.
  • Loewe, Michael. (1968).Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC–AD 220. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
  • Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1997).Liao Architecture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

External links

edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toPagodas in China.
[8]ページ先頭
©2009-2025 Movatter.jp