Objections to evolution have been raised sinceevolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century. WhenCharles Darwin published his 1859 bookOn the Origin of Species, his theory ofevolution (the idea thatspecies arose throughdescent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven bynatural selection) initially met opposition fromscientists withdifferent theories, but eventually came to receivenear-universal acceptance in thescientific community. The observation of evolutionary processes occurring (as well as themodern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence) has been uncontroversial among mainstreambiologists since the 1940s.
Since then, criticisms and denials of evolution have come fromreligious groups, rather than from the scientific community. Although many religious groups have found reconciliation of their beliefs with evolution, such as throughtheistic evolution, other religious groups continue to reject evolutionary explanations in favor ofcreationism, the belief that the universe and life were created bysupernatural forces. TheU.S.-centeredcreation–evolution controversy has become a focal point of perceived conflict betweenreligion and science.
Several branches of creationism, includingcreation science,neo-creationism,geocentric creationism andintelligent design, argue that the idea of life being directly designed by agod or intelligence is at least as scientific as evolutionary theory, and should therefore betaught in public education. Such arguments against evolution have become widespread and include objections to evolution'sevidence,methodology, plausibility,morality, and scientific acceptance. The scientific community does not recognize such objections as valid, pointing to detractors' misinterpretations of such things as thescientific method, evidence, and basicphysical laws.
Evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the early 19th century with the theory (developed between 1800 and 1822) of thetransmutation of species put forward byJean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). At first thescientific community – and notablyGeorges Cuvier (1769–1832) – opposed the idea of evolution.[1] The idea thatlaws controlnature andsociety gained vast popular audiences withGeorge Combe'sThe Constitution of Man of 1828 and with the anonymousVestiges of the Natural History of Creation of 1844. WhenCharles Darwin published his 1859 bookOn the Origin of Species, he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arise through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence fromcommon ancestors, but while most scientists accepted natural selection as a valid andempirically testablehypothesis, Darwin's view of it as the primary mechanism of evolution was rejected by some.[2]
Darwin's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based uponfossil evidence, and theX Club (operative from 1864 to 1893) formed to defend the concept of evolution against opposition from the church and wealthy amateurs.[3] At that time the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided –natural selection – was actively disputed by scientists in favour of alternative theories such asLamarckism andorthogenesis. Darwin'sgradualistic account was also opposed by the ideas ofsaltationism andcatastrophism.Lord Kelvin led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations for theage of the Earth at between 24 and 400 million years, and his views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance.[4] Geological estimates disputed Kelvin's age of the earth, and the geological approach gained strength in 1907 whenradioactive dating of rocks revealed the Earth as billions of years old.[5][6] The specifichereditary mechanism which Darwin hypothesized,pangenesis, which supported gradualism, also lacked any supporting evidence and was disputed by the empirical tests (1869 onwards) ofFrancis Galton. Although evolution itself was scientifically unchallenged, uncertainties about the mechanism in the era of "the eclipse of Darwinism" persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s'[7] inclusion ofMendelian inheritance and the rise of themodern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence, such as that fromgenetics, which confirmed Darwin's predictions and refuted the competing hypotheses.[8]
Protestantism, especially in America, broke out in "acrid polemics" and argument about evolution from 1860 to the 1870s—with the turning point possibly marked by the death ofLouis Agassiz in 1873—and by 1880 a form of "Christian evolution" was becoming the consensus.[9] In Britain, while publication ofThe Descent of Man by Darwin in 1871 reinvigorated debate from the previous decade,Sir Henry Chadwick (1920–2008) notes a steady acceptance of evolution "among more educated Christians" between 1860 and 1885.[citation needed] As a result, evolutionary theory was "both permissible and respectable" by 1876.[10]Frederick Temple's lectures onThe Relations between Religion and Science (1884) on how evolution was not "antagonistic" to religion highlighted this trend.[11] Temple's appointment asArchbishop of Canterbury in 1896 demonstrated the broad acceptance of evolution within the church hierarchy.[10]
For decades theRoman Catholic Church avoided officially rejecting evolution. However, the Church would rein in Catholics who proposed that evolution could be reconciled with theBible, as this conflicted with theFirst Vatican Council's (1869–70) finding that everything was createdout of nothing by God, and to deny that finding could lead toexcommunication. In 1950 theencyclicalHumani generis ofPope Pius XII first mentioned evolution directly and officially.[12] It allowed one to enquire into the concept ofhumans coming from pre-existing living matter, but not to questionAdam and Eve or the creation of thesoul. In 1996Pope John Paul II labelled evolution "more than a hypothesis" and acknowledged the large body of work accumulated in its support, but reiterated that any attempt to give a material explanation of the human soul is "incompatible with the truth about man".[13]Pope Benedict XVI in 2005 reiterated the conviction that human beings "are not some casual and meaningless product of evolution. Each of us is the result of a thought of God. Each of us is willed, each of us is loved, each of us is necessary."[14] At the same time, Pope Benedict promoted the study of the relationship between the concepts of creation and evolution, based on the conviction that there cannot be a contradiction between faith and reason.[15] Along these lines, theresearch project "Thomistic Evolution", run by a team ofDominican scholars, endeavours to reconcile the scientific evidence on evolution with the teaching ofThomas Aquinas[16] (1225–1274).
Islamic views on evolution ranged from those believing in literal creation (as implied in theQuran) to many educated Muslims who subscribed to a version of theistic or guided evolution in which the Quran reinforced rather than contradicted mainstream science. This occurred relatively early, as medievalmadrasas taught the ideas ofAl-Jahiz, a Muslim scholar from the 9th century, who proposed concepts similar to natural selection.[17] However, acceptance of evolution remains low in the Muslim world, as prominent figures reject evolution's underpinningphilosophy ofmaterialism as unsound to human origins and a denial ofAllah.[17] Further objections by Muslim authors and writers largely reflect those put forward in theWestern world.[18]
Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies, early religious objections to Darwin's theory continue in use in opposition to evolution. The idea that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict theGenesis account of Creation. Believers inBiblical infallibility attackedDarwinism as heretical.[citation needed] Thenatural theology of the early-19th century was typified byWilliam Paley's 1802 version of thewatchmaker analogy, anargument from design still deployed by the creationist movement. Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset, and when Darwin's theory was published, ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation, while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non-specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans.[19] This position has been adopted by denominations ofChristianity andJudaism in line withmodernist theology which views the Bible andTorah as allegorical, thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion.
However, in the 1920sChristian fundamentalists in theUnited States developed theirliteralist arguments against modernist theology intoopposition to the teaching of evolution, with fears that Darwinism had led to German militarism and posed a threat to religion and morality. This opposition developed into the creation–evolution controversy, involving Christian literalists in the United States objecting to the teaching of evolution inpublic schools. Although early objectors dismissed evolution as contradicting their interpretation of the Bible, this argument was legally invalidated when theUnited States Supreme Court ruled inEpperson v. Arkansas in 1968 that forbidding the teaching of evolution on religious grounds violated theEstablishment Clause.[20]
Since then creationists have developed more nuanced objections to evolution, alleging variously that it is unscientific, infringes on creationists'religious freedoms, or that the acceptance of evolution is a religious stance.[21] Creationists have appealed to democratic principles of fairness, arguing that evolution is controversial and that science classrooms should therefore "Teach the Controversy".[22] These objections to evolution culminated in theintelligent-design movement in the 1990s and early 2000s thatunsuccessfully attempted to present itself as a scientific alternative to evolution.[23][24]
A major source of confusion and ambiguity in any creation–evolution debate arises from the definition ofevolution itself. In the context of biology, evolution is genetic changes in populations of organisms over successive generations. The word also has a number of different meanings in different fields, fromevolutionary computation tomolecular evolution tosociocultural evolution tostellar andgalactic evolution.
Evolution in colloquial contexts can refer to any sort of "progressive" development or gradual improvement, and a process that results in greater quality or complexity.[25] When misapplied to biological evolution this common meaning can lead to frequent misunderstandings. For example, the idea ofdevolution ("backwards" evolution) is a result of erroneously assuming that evolution is directional or has a specific goal in mind (cf. orthogenesis). In reality, the evolution of a biological organism has no "objective" and is only showing increasing ability of successive generations to survive and reproduce in their environment; and increased suitability is only defined in relation to this environment. Biologists do not regard any one species (such as humans) as morehighly evolved oradvanced than another. Certain sources have been criticized for indicating otherwise due to a tendency to evaluate nonhuman organisms according toanthropocentric standards rather than according to more objective ones.[26]
Evolution also does not require that organisms become more complex. Although thebiological development of different forms of life shows an apparent trend towards theevolution of biological complexity, there is a question as to whether this appearance of increased complexity is real, or whether it comes from neglecting the fact that the majority of life on Earth has always consisted ofprokaryotes.[27] In this view, complexity is not a necessary consequence of evolution, but specific circumstances of evolution on Earth frequently made greater complexity advantageous and thusnaturally selected for. Depending on the situation, organisms' complexity can either increase, decrease, or stay the same, and all three of these trends have been observed in studies of evolution.[26]
Creationist sources frequently define evolution according to a colloquial, rather than the scientific meaning. As a result, many attempts to rebut evolution do not address the findings ofevolutionary biology (seestraw-man argument). This also means that advocates of creationism and evolutionary biologists often simply speak past each other.[28]
Critics of evolution assert that evolution is "just a theory", which emphasizes that scientific theories are never absolute, or misleadingly presents it as a matter of opinion rather than of fact or evidence.[29] This reflects a difference of the meaning oftheory in a scientific context: whereas in colloquial speech atheory is a conjecture or guess, inscience, a theory is an explanation whose predictions have been verified by experiments or other evidence.Evolutionary theory refers to an explanation for the diversity of species and their ancestry which has met extremely high standards of scientific evidence. An example of evolution as theory is themodern synthesis of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian inheritance. As with any scientific theory, the modern synthesis is constantly debated, tested, and refined by scientists, but there is an overwhelming consensus in the scientific community that it remains the only robust model that accounts for the known facts concerning evolution.[30]
Critics also state that evolution is not afact.[31] In science a fact is a verified empirical observation while in colloquial contexts a fact can simply refer to anything for which there is overwhelming evidence. For example, in common usage theories such as "the Earth revolves around the Sun" and "objects fall due to gravity" may be referred to as "facts", even though they are purely theoretical. From a scientific standpoint, therefore, evolution may be called a "fact" for the same reason that gravity can: under the scientific definition, evolution is an observable process that occurs whenever a population of organisms genetically changes over time. Under the colloquial definition, the theory of evolution can also be called a fact, referring to this theory's well-established nature. Thus, evolution is widely consideredboth a theory and a fact by scientists.[29][32][33][34]
Similar confusion is involved in objections that evolution is "unproven", since no theory in science is known to be absolutely true, only verified byempirical evidence.[35][36] This distinction is an important one inphilosophy of science, as it relates to the lack of absolutecertainty in all empirical claims, not just evolution. Strictproof is possible only informal sciences such as logic and mathematics, notnatural sciences (where terms such as "validated" or "corroborated" are more appropriate). Thus, to say that evolution is not proven is trivially true, but no more an indictment of evolution than calling it a "theory". The confusion arises in that the colloquial meaning ofproof is simply "compelling evidence", in which case scientists would indeed consider evolution "proven".[37]
An objection is often made in theteaching of evolution that evolution is controversial or contentious.[38][39] Unlike past creationist arguments which sought to abolish the teaching of evolution altogether, this argument makes the claim that evolution should be presented alongside alternative views since it is controversial, and students should be allowed to evaluate and choose between the options on their own.[39][40]
This objection forms the basis of the "Teach the Controversy" campaign by theDiscovery Institute, athink tank based in Seattle, Washington, to promote the teaching of intelligent design in U.S. public schools. This goal followed the Institute's "wedge strategy", an attempt to gradually undermine evolution and ultimately to "reverse the stifling dominance of thematerialist worldview, and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions."[22] Several other attempts were made to insert intelligent design or creationism into the U.S. public school curriculum, including the failedSantorum Amendment in 2001.[41]
Scientists and U.S. courts have rejected this objection on the grounds that science is not based onappeals to popularity, but on evidence. Thescientific consensus of biologists determines what is considered acceptable science, not popular opinion or fairness, and although evolution is controversial in the public arena, it is entirely uncontroversial among experts in the field.[42][43]
In response, creationists have disputed the level of scientificsupport for evolution. The Discovery Institute has gathered over 761 scientists as of August 2008 to signA Scientific Dissent From Darwinism in order to show that there are a number of scientists who dispute what they refer to as "Darwinian evolution". This statement did not profess outright disbelief in evolution, but expressed skepticism as to the ability of "random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life." Several counter-petitions have been launched in turn, includingA Scientific Support for Darwinism, which gathered over 7,000 signatures in four days,[44] andProject Steve, a tongue-in-cheek petition that has gathered the signatures of 1,497 (as of May 22, 2024) evolution-supporting scientists named "Steve" (or any similar variation thereof—Stephen, Stephanie, Esteban, etc.).[45]
Creationists have argued for over a century that evolution is a "theory in crisis" that will soon be overturned, based on objections that it lacks reliable evidence or violates natural laws. These objections have been rejected by most scientists, as have claims that intelligent design, or any other creationist explanation, meets the basic scientific standards that would be required to make them scientific alternatives to evolution. It is also argued that even if evidence against evolution exists, it is afalse dilemma to characterize this as evidencefor intelligent design.[46]
A similar objection to evolution is that certain scientific authorities—mainly pre-modern ones—have doubted or rejected evolution.[47] Most commonly, it is argued that Darwin "recanted" on his deathbed, a false anecdote originating fromLady Hope's story.[48] These objections are generally rejected asappeals to authority.[49]
A common neo-creationist objection to evolution is that evolution does not adhere to normal scientific standards—that it is not genuinely scientific. It is argued that evolutionary biology does not follow thescientific method and therefore should not be taught in science classes, or at least should be taught alongside other views (i.e., creationism). These objections often deal with:
Creationists commonly argue that "evolution is a religion; it is not a science."[21] The purpose of this criticism is to reframe the debate from one between science (evolution) and religion (creationism) to between two religious beliefs—or even to argue that evolution is religious while intelligent design is not.[50][51] Those that oppose evolution frequently refer to supporters of evolution as "evolutionists" or "Darwinists".[21]
The arguments for evolution being a religion generally amount to arguments byanalogy: it is argued that evolution and religion have one or more things in common, and that therefore evolution is a religion. Examples of claims made in such arguments are statements that evolution is based onfaith,[35] and that supporters of evolutiondogmatically reject alternative suggestions out-of-hand.[52] These claims have become more popular in recent years as the neo-creationist movement has sought to distance itself from religion, thus giving it more reason to make use of a seemingly anti-religious analogy.[42]
Supporters of evolution have argued in response that no scientist's claims are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years to form firstneo-Darwinism and later themodern evolutionary synthesis.[53][54] The claim that evolution relies on faith is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence, and therefore does not require faith.
The argument that evolution is religious has been rejected in general on the grounds thatreligion is not defined by how dogmatic or zealous its adherents are, but by its spiritual or supernatural beliefs. But evolution is neither dogmatic nor based on faith, and they accuse creationists ofequivocating between the strict definition ofreligion and its colloquial usage to refer to anything that is enthusiastically or dogmatically engaged in. United States courts have also rejected this objection:[55]
Assuming for the purposes of argument, however, that evolution is a religion or religious tenet, the remedy is to stop the teaching of evolution, not establish another religion in opposition to it. Yet it is clearly established in the case law, and perhaps also in common sense, that evolution is not a religion and that teaching evolution does not violate the Establishment Clause,Epperson v. Arkansas, supra,Willoughby v. Stever, No. 15574-75 (D.D.C. May 18, 1973); aff'd. 504 F.2d 271 (D.C. Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 420 U.S. 924 (1975);Wright v. Houston Indep. School Dist., 366 F. Supp. 1208 (S.D. Tex 1978), aff.d. 486 F.2d 137 (5th Cir. 1973), cert. denied 417 U.S. 969 (1974).
A related claim is that evolution isatheistic (see theAtheism section below); creationists sometimes merge the two claims and describe evolution as an "atheistic religion" (cf.humanism).[51] This argument against evolution is also frequently generalized into a criticism of all science; it is argued that "science is an atheistic religion", on the grounds that itsmethodological naturalism is as unproven, and thus as "faith-based", as the supernatural and theistic beliefs of creationism.[56]
A statement is consideredfalsifiable if there is an observation or a test that could be made that would demonstrate that the statement is false. Statements that are not falsifiable cannot be examined by scientific investigation since they permit no tests that evaluate their accuracy. Creationists such asHenry M. Morris have claimed that any observation can be fitted into the evolutionary framework, so it is impossible to demonstrate that evolution is wrong and therefore evolution is non-scientific.[57][58]
Evolution could be falsified by many conceivable lines of evidence, such as:
J. B. S. Haldane, when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution, replied "fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era."[59][60] Numerous other potential ways to falsify evolution have also been proposed.[37] For example, the fact that humans have one fewer pair of chromosomes than thegreat apes offered a testable hypothesis involving the fusion or splitting of chromosomes from a common ancestor. The fusion hypothesis was confirmed in 2005 by discovery thathuman chromosome 2 is homologous with a fusion of two chromosomes that remain separate in otherprimates. Extra, inactivetelomeres andcentromeres remain on human chromosome 2 as a result of the fusion.[61] The assertion of common descent could also have been disproven with the invention ofDNA sequencing methods. If true, humanDNA should be far more similar to chimpanzees and other great apes, than to othermammals. If not, then common descent is falsified. DNA analysis has shown that humans and chimpanzees share a large percentage of their DNA (between 95% and 99.4% depending on the measure).[62] Also, the evolution ofchimpanzees and humans from a common ancestor predicts a (geologically) recent common ancestor. Numeroustransitional fossils have since been found.[63] Hence, human evolution has passed several falsifiable tests.
Many of Darwin's ideas and assertions of fact have been falsified as evolutionary science has developed, but these amendments and falsifications have uniformly confirmed his central concepts.[64][65] In contrast, creationist explanations involving the direct intervention of the supernatural in the physical world are not falsifiable, because any result of an experiment or investigation could be the unpredictable action of an omnipotent deity.[66]
In 1976, the philosopherKarl Popper said that "Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme."[67] He later changed his mind and argued that Darwin's "theory of natural selection is difficult to test" with respect to other areas of science.[68][69]
In his 1982 book,Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism, philosopher of sciencePhilip Kitcher specifically addresses the "falsifiability" question by taking into account notable philosophical critiques of Popper byCarl Gustav Hempel andWillard Van Orman Quine and provides a definition of theory other than as a set of falsifiable statements.[70] As Kitcher points out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of "theory", observations ofUranus when it was first discovered in 1781 would have "falsified"Isaac Newton'scelestial mechanics.[how?] Rather, people suggested that another planet influenced Uranus' orbit—and this prediction was indeed eventually confirmed. Kitcher agrees with Popper that "there is surely something right in the idea that a science can succeed only if it can fail."[71] But he insists that we view scientific theories as consisting of an "elaborate collection of statements", some of which are not falsifiable, and others—what he calls "auxiliary hypotheses", which are.
A related claim to the supposed unfalsifiability of evolution is that natural selection istautological.[68] Specifically, it is often argued that the phrase "survival of the fittest" is a tautology, in thatfitness is defined as ability to survive and reproduce. This phrase was first used byHerbert Spencer in 1864 but is rarely used by biologists. Additionally, fitness is more accurately defined as the state of possessing traits that make survival more likely; this definition, unlike simple "survivability", avoids being trivially true.[72][73]
Similarly, it is argued that evolutionary theory iscircular reasoning, in that evidence is interpreted as supporting evolution, but evolution is required to interpret the evidence. An example of this is the claim that geologicalstrata are dated through the fossils they hold, but that fossils are in turn dated by the strata they are in.[35] However, in most cases strata are not dated by their fossils, but by their position relative to other strata and byradiometric dating, and most strata were dated before the theory of evolution was formulated.[74]
Objections to the fact that evolution occurs tend to focus on specific interpretations about the evidence.
A common claim of creationists is that evolution has never been observed.[75][76] Challenges to such objections often come down to debates over how evolution is defined (see theDefining evolution section above). Under the conventional biological definition ofevolution, it is a simple matter to observe evolution occurring. Evolutionary processes, in the form of populations changing their genetic composition from generation to generation, have been observed in different scientific contexts, including the evolution offruit flies,mice, andbacteria in the laboratory,[77] and oftilapia in the field. Such studies onexperimental evolution, particularly those usingmicroorganisms, are now providing important insights into how evolution occurs, especially in the case ofantibiotic resistance.[77][78]
In response to such examples, creationists say there are two major subdivisions of evolution to be considered,microevolution andmacroevolution, and it is questionable if macro-evolution has been physically observed to occur.[79][80] Most creationist organizations do not dispute the occurrence of short-term, relatively minor evolutionary changes, such as that observed even indog breeding. Rather, they dispute the occurrence of major evolutionary changes over long periods of time, which by definition cannot be directly observed, only inferred from microevolutionary processes and the traces of macroevolutionary ones.
As biologists definemacroevolution, both microevolution and macroevolution have been observed.[81][82]Speciations, for example, have been directly observed many times.[83] Additionally, the modern evolutionary synthesis draws no distinction in the processes described by the theory of evolution when considering macroevolution and microevolution as the former is simply at the species level or above and the latter is below the species level.[37][84] An example of this isring species.
Additionally, past macroevolution can be inferred from historical traces. Transitional fossils, for example, provide plausible links between several different groups of organisms, such asArchaeopteryx linkingbirds and non-aviandinosaurs,[85] or theTiktaalik linking fish and limbed amphibians.[86] Creationists dispute such examples, from asserting that such fossils are hoaxes or that they belong exclusively to one group or the other, to asserting that there should be far more evidence of obvious transitional species. Darwin himself found the paucity of transitional species to be one of the greatest weaknesses of his theory:
Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate links? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely graduated organic chain and this, perhaps, is the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory. The explanation lies, as I believe, in the extreme imperfection of the geological record.
Darwin appealed to the limited collections then available, the extreme lengths of time involved, and different rates of change with some living species differing very little from fossils of theSilurian period. In later editions he added "that the periods during which species have been undergoing modification, though very long as measured by years, have probably been short in comparison with the periods during which these same species remained without undergoing any change."[87] The number of clear transitional fossils has increased enormously since Darwin's day, and this problem has been largely resolved with the advent of the theory ofpunctuated equilibrium, which predicts a primarily stable fossil record broken up by occasional major speciations.[88][89]
As more and more compelling direct evidence for inter-species and species-to-species evolution has been gathered, creationists have redefined their understanding of what amounts to "created kinds", and have continued to insist that more dramatic demonstrations of evolution be experimentally produced.[90] One version of this objection is "Were you there?", popularized byyoung Earth creationistKen Ham. It argues that because no one except God could directly observe events in the distant past, scientific claims are just speculation or "story-telling".[91][92] DNA sequences of thegenomes of organisms allow an independent test of their predicted relationships, since species which diverged more recently will be more closely related genetically than species which are more distantly related; suchphylogenetic trees show a hierarchical organization within thetree of life, as predicted by common descent.[93][94]
In fields such asastrophysics ormeteorology, where direct observation or laboratory experiments are difficult or impossible, the scientific method instead relies on observation and logical inference. In such fields, the test of falsifiability is satisfied when a theory is used to predict the results of new observations. When such observations contradict a theory's predictions, it may be revised or discarded if an alternative better explains the observed facts. For example,Newton's theory of gravitation was replaced byAlbert Einstein's theory ofgeneral relativity when the latter was observed to more precisely predict the orbit ofMercury.[95]
A related objection is that evolution is based on unreliable evidence, claiming that evolution is not even well-evidenced. Typically, this is either based on the argument that evolution's evidence is full of frauds and hoaxes, that current evidence for evolution is likely to be overturned as some past evidence has been, or that certain types of evidence are inconsistent and dubious.
Arguments against evolution's reliability are thus often based on analyzing thehistory of evolutionary thought or thehistory of science in general. Creationists point out that in the past, majorscientific revolutions have overturned theories that were at the time considered near-certain. They thus claim that current evolutionary theory is likely to undergo such a revolution in the future, on the basis that it is a "theory in crisis" for one reason or another.[96]
Critics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientifichoaxes such as thePiltdown Manforgery. It is argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution, the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error. Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused of being fraudulent at various times, includingArchaeopteryx,peppered moth melanism, andDarwin's finches; these claims have been subsequently refuted.[98][99][100][101]
It has also been claimed that certain former pieces of evidence for evolution which are now considered out-of-date and erroneous, such asErnst Haeckel's 19th-century comparative drawings of embryos, used to illustrate hisrecapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulatesphylogeny"), were not merely errors but frauds.[102][103]Molecular biologistJonathan Wells criticizes biologytextbooks by alleging that they continue to reproduce such evidence after it has been debunked.[100] In response, theNational Center for Science Education notes that none of the textbooks reviewed by Wells makes the claimed error, as Haeckel's drawings are shown in a historical context with discussion about why they are wrong, and the accurate modern drawings and photos used in the textbooks are misrepresented by Wells.[104]
Creationists claim that evolution relies on certain types of evidence that do not give reliable information about the past. For example, it is argued thatradiometric dating technique of evaluating a material's age based on theradioactive decay rates of certainisotopes generates inconsistent and thus unreliable results.Radiocarbon dating based on thecarbon-14 isotope has been particularly criticized. It is argued that radiometric decay relies on a number of unwarranted assumptions such as the principle ofuniformitarianism, consistent decay rates, or rocks acting asclosed systems. Such arguments have been dismissed by scientists on the grounds that independent methods have confirmed the reliability of radiometric dating as a whole; additionally, different radiometric dating methods and techniques have independently confirmed each other's results.[106]
Another form of this objection is that fossil evidence is not reliable. This is based on a much wider range of claims. These include that there are too many "gaps" in the fossil record,[107][108] that fossil-dating is circular (see theUnfalsifiability section above), or that certain fossils, such aspolystrate fossils, are seemingly "out of place". Examination by geologists have found polystrate fossils to be consistent within situ formation.[109] It is argued that certain features of evolution support creationism'scatastrophism (cf.Great Flood), rather than evolution'sgradualisticpunctuated equilibrium,[110] which some assert is anad hoc theory to explain the fossil gaps.[111]
A common objection to evolution is that it is simply too unlikely for life, in its complexity and apparent "design", to have arisen "by chance". It is argued that the odds of life having arisen without a deliberate intelligence guiding it are so incredibly low that it is unreasonablenot to infer an intelligent designer from the natural world, and specifically from thediversity of life.[112] A more extreme version of this argument is that evolution cannot create complex structures (see theCreation of complex structures section below). The idea that it is simply too implausible for life to have evolved is often wrongly encapsulated with a quotation that the "probability of life originating on Earth is no greater than the chance that a hurricane, sweeping through a scrapyard, would have the luck to assemble aBoeing 747"—a claim attributed toastrophysicistFred Hoyle and known asHoyle's fallacy.[113] Hoyle was a Darwinist,atheist andanti-theist, but advocated the theory ofpanspermia, in which abiogenesis begins inouter space and primitive life on Earth is held to have arrived via natural dispersion.
Views superficially similar, but unrelated to Hoyle's, are thus invariably justified with arguments from analogy. The basic idea of this argument for a designer is theteleological argument, an argument for theexistence of God based on the perceived order or purposefulness of theuniverse. A common way of using this as an objection to evolution is by appealing to the 18th-century philosopher William Paley's watchmaker analogy, which argues that certain natural phenomena are analogical to a watch (in that they are ordered, or complex, or purposeful), which means that, like a watch, they must have been designed by a "watchmaker"—an intelligent agent. This argument forms the core of intelligent design, a neo-creationist movement seeking to establish certain variants of the design argument as legitimate science, rather than as philosophy ortheology, and have them be taught alongside evolution.[20][42]
Supporters of evolution generally respond by arguing that this objection is simply anargument by lack of imagination, orargument from incredulity: a certain explanation is seen as beingcounterintuitive, and therefore an alternate, more intuitive explanation is appealed to instead. In actuality, evolution is not based on "chance", but on predictable chemical interactions: natural processes, rather than supernatural beings, are the "designer". Although the process involves some random elements, it is the non-random selection of survival-enhancing genes that drives the evolution of complex and ordered patterns. The fact that the results are ordered and seem "designed" is no more evidence for a supernatural intelligence than the appearance of complex non-living phenomena (e.g.snowflakes).[115] It is also argued that there is insufficient evidence to make statements about the plausibility or implausibility of abiogenesis, that certain structures demonstratepoor design, and that the implausibility of life evolving exactly as it did is no more evidence for an intelligence than the implausibility of a deck of cards being shuffled and dealt in a certain random order.[42][114]
It has also been noted that arguments against some form of life arising "by chance" are really objections to nontheisticabiogenesis, not to evolution. Indeed, arguments against "evolution" are based on the misconception that abiogenesis is a component of, or necessary precursor to, evolution. Similar objections sometimes conflate the Big Bang with evolution.[28]
Christian apologist and philosopherAlvin Plantinga, who believes evolution must have been guided if it occurred, has formalized and revised the improbability argument as the evolutionary argument against naturalism, which asserts that it is irrational to reject a supernatural, intelligent creator because the apparent probability of certain faculties evolving is so low. Specifically, Plantinga claims that evolution cannot account for the rise of reliable reasoning faculties. Plantinga argues that whereas a God would be expected to create beings with reliable reasoning faculties, evolution would be just as likely to lead to unreliable ones, meaning that if evolution is true, it is irrational to trust whatever reasoning one relies on to conclude that it is true.[116] This novelepistemological argument has been criticized similarly to other probabilistic design arguments. It has also been argued that rationality, if conducive to survival, is more likely to be selected for than irrationality, making the natural development of reliable cognitive faculties more likely than unreliable ones.[117][118]
A related argument against evolution is that most mutations are harmful.[119] However, the vast majority of mutations areneutral, and the minority of mutations which are beneficial or harmful are often situational; a mutation that is harmful in one environment may be helpful in another.[120]
In addition to complex structures and systems, among the phenomena that critics variously claim evolution cannot explain areconsciousness,hominid intelligence,instincts,emotions,metamorphosis,photosynthesis,homosexuality,music,language, religion, morality, andaltruism (seealtruism in animals).[121] Most of these, such as hominid intelligence, instinct, emotion, photosynthesis, language, and altruism, have been well-explained by evolution, while others remain mysterious, or only have preliminary explanations. No alternative explanation has been able to adequately explain the biological origin of these phenomena either.[122]
Creationists argue against evolution on the grounds that it cannot explain certain non-evolutionary processes, such as abiogenesis, the Big Bang, or themeaning of life. In such instances,evolution is beingredefined to refer to the entire history of the universe, and it is argued that if one aspect of the universe is seemingly inexplicable, the entire body of scientific theories must be baseless. At this point, objections leave the arena of evolutionary biology and become general scientific or philosophical disputes.[123]
Astronomers Fred Hoyle andChandra Wickramasinghe have argued in favor of cosmic ancestry,[124][125][126][127][128][129] and against abiogenesis and evolution.[130][131]
This class of objections is more radical than the above, claiming that a major aspect of evolution is not merely unscientific or implausible, but rather impossible, because it contradicts some other law of nature or is constrained in such a way that it cannot produce the biological diversity of the world.
Living things have fantastically intricate features—at the anatomical, cellular and molecular level— that could not function if they were any less complex or sophisticated. The only prudent conclusion is that they are the products of intelligent design, not evolution.
— Jonathan Sarfati, quotingScientific American editorJohn Rennie[132][133]
Modern evolutionary theory posits that all biological systems must have evolved incrementally, through a combination of natural selection andgenetic drift. Both Darwin and his early detractors recognized the potential problems that could arise for his theory of natural selection if the lineage of organs and other biological features could not be accounted for by gradual, step-by-step changes over successive generations; if all the intermediary stages between an initial organ and the organ it will become are not all improvements upon the original, it will be impossible for the later organ to develop by the process of natural selection alone. Complex organs such as the eye had been presented by William Paley as exemplifying the need fordesign by God, and anticipating early criticisms that theevolution of the eye and other complex organs seemed impossible, Darwin noted that:[134]
[R]eason tells me, that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist; if further, the eye does vary ever so slightly, and the variations be inherited, which is certainly the case; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life, then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection, though insuperable by our imagination, can hardly be considered real.
Similarly,ethologist and evolutionary biologistRichard Dawkins said on the topic of the evolution of thefeather in an interview for the television programThe Atheism Tapes:
There's got to be a series of advantages all the way in the feather. If you can't think of one, then that's your problem not natural selection's problem... It's perfectly possible feathers began as fluffy extensions of reptilian scales to act as insulators... The earliest feathers might have been a different approach to hairiness among reptiles keeping warm.
Creationist arguments have been made such as "What use is half an eye?" and "What use is half a wing?".[135] Research has confirmed that the naturalevolution of the eye and other intricate organs is entirely feasible.[136][137] Creationist claims have persisted that such complexity evolving without a designer is inconceivable and this objection to evolution has been refined in recent years as the more sophisticated irreducible complexity argument of the intelligent design movement, formulated by Michael Behe.[20]BiochemistMichael Behe has argued that current evolutionary theory cannot account for certain complex structures, particularly in microbiology. On this basis, Behe argues that such structures were "purposely arranged by an intelligent agent".[138]
Irreducible complexity is the idea that certain biological systems cannot be broken down into their constituent parts and remain functional, and therefore that they could not have evolved naturally from less complex or complete systems. Whereas past arguments of this nature generally relied on macroscopic organs, Behe's primary examples of irreducible complexity have been cellular and biochemical in nature. He has argued that the components of systems such as theblood clotting cascade, theimmune system, and thebacterial flagellum are so complex and interdependent that they could not have evolved from simpler systems.[139]
In fact,my argument for intelligent design is open to direct experimental rebuttal. Here is a thought experiment that makes the point clear. InDarwin's Black Box [...] I claimed that the bacterial flagellum was irreducibly complex and so required deliberate intelligent design. The flip side of this claim is that the flagellum can't be produced by natural selection acting on random mutation, or any other unintelligent process. To falsify such a claim, a scientist could go into the laboratory, place a bacterial species lacking a flagellum under some selective pressure (for mobility, say), grow it for ten thousand generations, and see if a flagellum—or any equally complex system—was produced. If that happened, my claims would be neatly disproven.
— Michael Behe[140]
In the years since Behe proposed irreducible complexity, new developments and advances in biology such as an improved understanding of theevolution of flagella,[141] have already undermined these arguments.[142][143] The idea that seemingly irreducibly complex systems cannot evolve has been refuted through evolutionary mechanisms, such asexaptation (the adaptation of organs for entirely new functions)[144] and the use of "scaffolding", which are initially necessary features of a system that later degenerate when they are no longer required. Potential evolutionary pathways have been provided for all of the systems Behe used as examples of irreducible complexity.[142][145][146]
TheCambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around539 million years ago[147] of most majoranimalphyla as demonstrated in the fossil record,[148] and many more phyla now extinct.[note 1][149] This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms.[note 2] Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized intocolonies. Over the following 70 or 80 million years the rate of diversification accelerated by anorder of magnitude[note 3] and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today,[152][153] although they did not resemble the species of today.[148]
The basic problem with this is that natural selection calls for the slow accumulation of changes, where a new phylum would take longer than a new class which would take longer than a new order, which would take longer than a new family, which would take longer than a new genus would take longer than emergence of a new species[154] but the apparent occurrence of high-level taxa without precedents is perhaps implying unusual evolutionary mechanisms.[155][156]
There is general consensus that many factors helped trigger the rise of new phyla,[157] but there is no generally accepted consensus about the combination and the Cambrian explosion continues to be an area of controversy and research over why so rapid, why at the phylum level, why so many phyla then and none since, and even if the apparent fossil record is accurate.[158] Some recent advances suggest that there is no clearly definable "Cambrian Explosion" event in the fossil record, but rather that there was a progression of transitional radiations starting with the Ediacaran period and continuing at a similar rate into the Cambrian.[159]
An example of opinions involving the commonly cited rise in oxygenGreat Oxidation Event from biologistPZ Myers summarizes:[160] "What it was was environmental changes, in particular the bioturbation revolution caused by the evolution of worms that released buried nutrients, and the steadily increasingoxygen content of the atmosphere that allowed those nutrients to fuel growth;[161][162][163] ecological competition, or a kind of arms race, that gave a distinct selective advantage to novelties that allowed species to occupy new niches; and the evolution of developmental mechanisms that enabled multicellular organisms to generate new morphotypes readily." The increase in molecular oxygen (O2) also may have allowed the formation of the protectiveozone layer (O3) that helps shield Earth from lethal UV radiation from theSun.[164]
A recent objection of creationists to evolution is that evolutionary mechanisms such asmutation cannot generate new information. Creationists such asWilliam A. Dembski,Werner Gitt, andLee Spetner have attempted to useinformation theory to dispute evolution. Dembski has argued that life demonstratesspecified complexity, and proposed a law of conservation of information that extremely improbable "complex specified information" could be conveyed by natural means but never originated without anintelligent agent. Gitt asserted that information is an intrinsic characteristic of life and that an analysis demonstrates the mind and will of their Creator.[165]
These claims have been widely rejected by the scientific community, which asserts that new information is regularly generated in evolution whenever a novel mutation orgene duplication arises. Dramatic examples of entirely new and unique traits arising through mutation have been observed in recent years, such as the evolution ofnylon-eating bacteria which developed newenzymes to efficiently digest a material that never existed before the modern era.[166][167] There is no need to account for the creation of information when an organism is considered together with the environment it evolved in. The information in the genome forms a record of how it was possible to survive in a particular environment. The information is gathered from the environment throughtrial and error, as mutating organisms either reproduce or fail.[168]
The concept of specified complexity is widely regarded asmathematically unsound and has not been the basis for further independent work ininformation theory, in the theory ofcomplex systems, or inbiology.[169][170][171]
Another objection is that evolution violates thesecond law of thermodynamics.[172][173] The law states that "the entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium". In other words, an isolated system'sentropy (a measure of the dispersal of energy in a physical system so that it is not available to do mechanical work) will tend to increase or stay the same, not decrease. Creationists argue that evolution violates this physical law by requiring an increase in order (i.e., a decrease in entropy).[35][174]
The claims have been criticized for ignoring that the second law only applies toisolated systems. Organisms areopen systems as they constantly exchange energy and matter with their environment: for example animals eat food and excrete waste, and radiate and absorb heat. It is argued that the Sun-Earth-space system does not violate the second law because the enormous increase in entropy due to the Sun and Earth radiating into space dwarfs the local decrease in entropy caused by the existence and evolution ofself-organizing life.[32][175][176]
Since the second law of thermodynamics has a precise mathematical definition, this argument can be analyzed quantitatively.[177][178] This was done byphysicistDaniel F. Styer, who concluded: "Quantitative estimates of the entropy involved in biological evolution demonstrate that there is no conflict between evolution and the second law of thermodynamics."[177]
In a published letter to the editor ofThe Mathematical Intelligencer titled "How anti-evolutionists abuse mathematics",mathematicianJason Rosenhouse stated:[171]
The fact is that natural forces routinely lead to local decreases in entropy. Water freezes into ice and fertilised eggs turn into babies. Plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen, but [we do] not invoke divine intervention to explain the process ... thermodynamics offers nothing to dampen our confidence in Darwinism.
Other common objections to evolution allege that evolution leads to objectionable results, such aseugenics andNazi racial theory. It is argued that the teaching of evolution degrades values, undermines morals, and fostersirreligion oratheism. These may be consideredappeals to consequences (a form oflogical fallacy), as the potential ramifications of belief in evolutionary theory have nothing to do with its truth.
Inbiological classification, humans are animals,[179][180] a basic point which has been known for more than 2,000 years. Aristotle already described man as a political animal[181] andPorphyry defined man as a rational animal,[182] a definition accepted by theScholastic philosophers in theMiddle Ages. The creationist J. Rendle-Short asserted inCreation magazine that if people are taught evolution they can be expected to behave like animals.[183] In evolutionary terms, humans are able to acquire knowledge and change their behaviour to meetsocial standards, so humans behave in the manner of other humans.[184]
.jpg)
In 1917,Vernon Kellogg publishedHeadquarters Nights: A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium, which asserted that German intellectuals were totally committed to might-makes-right due to "whole-hearted acceptance of the worst of Neo-Darwinism, theAllmacht of natural selection applied rigorously to human life and society andKultur."[186] This strongly influenced the politicianWilliam Jennings Bryan, who saw Darwinism as a moral threat to America and campaigned against evolutionary theory; his campaign culminated in theScopes Trial, which effectively prevented teaching of evolution in most public schools until the 1960s.[187]
R. Albert Mohler, Jr., president of theSouthern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky, wrote August 8, 2005, inNPR'sTaking Issue essay series, that "Debates over education, abortion, environmentalism, homosexuality and a host of other issues are really debates about the origin — and thus the meaning — of human life. ...evolutionary theory stands at the base ofmoral relativism and the rejection of traditional morality."[188][189]
Henry M. Morris, engineering professor and founder of theCreation Research Society and theInstitute of Creation Research, claims that evolution was part of apagan religion that emerged after theTower of Babel, was part ofPlato's andAristotle's philosophies, and was responsible for everything from war to pornography to the breakup of the nuclear family.[190] He has also claimed that perceived social ills likecrime,teenage pregnancies,homosexuality,abortion,immorality,wars, andgenocide are caused by a belief in evolution.[191]
PastorD. James Kennedy of The Center for Reclaiming America for Christ and Coral Ridge Ministries claims that Darwin was responsible forAdolf Hitler's atrocities. In Kennedy's documentary and the accompanying pamphlet with the same title,Darwin's Deadly Legacy, Kennedy states that "To put it simply, no Darwin, no Hitler." In his efforts to expose the "harmful effects that evolution is still having on our nation, our children, and our world," Kennedy also states that, "We have had 150 years of the theory of Darwinian evolution, and what has it brought us? Whether Darwin intended it or not, millions of deaths, the destruction of those deemed inferior, the devaluing of human life, increasing hopelessness."[192][193][194] The Discovery Institute'sCenter for Science and Culture fellowRichard Weikart has made similar claims,[195][196] as have other creationists.[197] The claim was central to the documentary filmExpelled: No Intelligence Allowed (2008) promoting intelligent design creationism. TheAnti-Defamation League describes such claims as outrageous misuse ofthe Holocaust and its imagery, and as trivializing the "...many complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry. Hitler did not need Darwin or evolution to devise his heinous plan to exterminate the Jewish people, and Darwin and evolutionary theory cannot explain Hitler's genocidal madness. Moreover,anti-Semitism existed long before Darwin ever wrote a word."[194][198]
Young Earth creationistKent Hovind blames a long list of social ills on evolution, includingcommunism,socialism,World War I,World War II,racism, the Holocaust,Stalin's war crimes, theVietnam War,Pol Pot'sKilling Fields, the increase in crime and unwed mothers.[76] Hovind's son Eric Hovind claims that evolution is responsible for tattoos, body piercing, premarital sex, unwed births, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), divorce, and child abuse.[199]
Such accusations are counterfactual, and there is evidence that the opposite seems to be the case. A study published by the author and illustratorGregory S. Paul found that religious beliefs, including belief in creationism and disbelief in evolution, are positively correlated with social ills like crime.[200]The Barna Group surveys find that Christians and non-Christians in the U.S. have similar divorce rates, and the highest divorce rates in the U.S. are amongBaptists andPentecostals, both sects which reject evolution and embrace creationism.[201]
Michael Shermer argued inScientific American in October 2006 that evolution supports concepts like family values, avoiding lies, fidelity, moral codes and the rule of law.[202] He goes on to suggest that evolution gives more support to the notion of an omnipotent creator, rather than a tinkerer with limitations based on a human model, the more common image subscribed to by creationists. Careful analysis of the creationist charges that evolution has led to moral relativism and the Holocaust yields the conclusion that these charges appear to be highly suspect.[203] Such analyses conclude that the origins of the Holocaust are more likely to be found in historical Christian antisemitism than in evolution.[204][205]
Evolution has been used to justifySocial Darwinism, the exploitation of so-called "lesser breeds without the law" by "superior races", particularly in the nineteenth century.[206] Typically strong European nations that had successfully expanded their empires could be said to have "survived" in the struggle for dominance.[206] With this attitude, Europeans except forChristian missionaries rarely adopted any customs and languages of local people under their empires.[206] Creationists have frequently maintained that Social Darwinism—leading to policies designed to reward the most competitive—is alogical consequence of "Darwinism" (the theory of natural selection in biology).[207] Biologists and historians have stated that this is a fallacy ofappeal to nature, since the theory of natural selection is merely intended as a description of a biological phenomenon and should not be taken to imply that this phenomenon isgood or that it ought to be used as a moral guide in human society.[208]
Another charge leveled at evolutionary theory by creationists is that belief in evolution is either tantamount to atheism, or conducive to atheism.[209][210] It is commonly claimed that all proponents of evolutionary theory are "materialistic atheists". On the other hand, Davis A. Young argues that creation scienceitself is harmful to Christianity because its bad science will turn more away than it recruits. Young asks, "Can we seriously expect non-Christians to develop a respect for Christianity if we insist on teaching the brand of science that creationism brings with it?"[211] However, evolution neither requires nor rules out the existence of a supernatural being. PhilosopherRobert T. Pennock makes the comparison that evolution is no more atheistic thanplumbing.[212]H. Allen Orr, professor of biology atUniversity of Rochester, notes that:
Of the five founding fathers of twentieth-century evolutionary biology—Ronald Fisher,Sewall Wright,J. B. S. Haldane,Ernst Mayr, andTheodosius Dobzhansky—one was a devout Anglican who preached sermons and published articles in church magazines, one a practicing Unitarian, one a dabbler in Eastern mysticism, one an apparent atheist, and one a member of the Russian Orthodox Church and the author of a book on religion and science.[213]
In addition, a wide range of religions have reconciled a belief in a supernatural being with evolution.[214] Molleen Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education found that "of Americans in the twelve largest Christian denominations, 89.6% belong to churches that support evolution education." These churches include the "United Methodist Church,National Baptist Convention USA,Evangelical Lutheran Church in America,Presbyterian Church (USA),National Baptist Convention of America,African Methodist Episcopal Church, theRoman Catholic Church, theEpiscopal Church, and others."[215] A poll in 2000 done forPeople for the American Way found that 70% of the American public felt that evolution was compatible with a belief in God. Only 48% of the people polled could choose the correct definition of evolution from a list, however.[216]
One poll reported in the journalNature showed that among American scientists (across various disciplines), about 40 percent believe in both evolution and an active deity (theistic evolution).[217] This is similar to the results reported for surveys of the general American public. Also, about 40 percent of the scientists polled believe in a God that answersprayers, and believe inimmortality.[218] While about 55% of scientists surveyed were atheists,agnostics, or nonreligious theists, atheism is far from universal among scientists who support evolution, or among the general public that supports evolution. Very similar results were reported from a 1997Gallup Poll of the American public and scientists.[219]
| Young Earth creationism | God-guided evolution | Evolution withoutGod guiding the process | |
|---|---|---|---|
| American public | 44% | 39% | 10% |
| American scientists[note 4] | 5% | 40% | 55% |
Traditionalists still object to the idea that diversity in life, including human beings, arose through natural processes without a need for supernatural intervention, and they argue against evolution on the basis that it contradicts their literal interpretation ofcreation myths about separate "created kinds". However, many religions, such asCatholicism which does not endorse nor deny evolution, have allowed Catholics to reconcile their own personal belief with evolution through the idea oftheistic evolution.[13][220][221][222][223]
2 c (1): a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler, or worse to a higher, more complex, or better state : GROWTH
(2): a process of gradual and relatively peaceful social, political, and economic advance
In the American vernacular, 'theory' often means 'imperfect fact'--part of a hierarchy of confidence running downhill from fact to theory to hypothesis to guess. Thus the power of the creationist argument: evolution is 'only' a theory and intense debate now rages about many aspects of the theory. If evolution is worse than a fact, and scientists can't even make up their minds about the theory, then what confidence can we have in it? [...] Well evolutionis a theory. It is also a fact. And facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty.— Moran quotingStephen J. Gould (Discover, May 1981)
As biologists use the term, macroevolution means evolution at or above the species level. Speciation has been observed and documented.Published asIsaak 2007, pp. 87–88
9. Evolution lowers man from the 'image of God' to the level of an animal. Why then should he not behave as one, in his own life and towards others?
I have to apologize once more for the wild flights of my incorrigible artist. I told him most clearly and positively to draw me a life-like portrait of that profound philosopher, Mr. Darwin...— Original cartoonhere. From the collection of The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online.
Like many foes of Darwinism, past and present, the American populist and creationist William Jennings Bryan thought a straight line ran from Darwin's theory ('a dogma of darkness and death') to beliefs that it is right for the strong to crowd out the weak.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)