Anefesh (fromHebrew:נֶפֶשׁ,lit. 'soul';pl. נֶפָשׁוֹת,nefashot) is aSemitic funerary monument typically placed near a grave, intended to be seen from a distance as a visible marker of the deceased.
Some examples of monumental funerary sculpture near Jerusalem bear inscriptions that include the termnephesh, and the word is generally accepted as a reference to the pyramid structure above or beside the tomb.[1]
Standing among a group of tombs inJerusalem, thetomb of Absalom is an important example ofLate Second Temple funerary architecture. To the lower left of the entrance to the tomb, the wordnephesh is inscribed in Greek. In this context, the Greeknephesh is translated as two Hebrew-Aramaic words asnephesh andqubr, now interpreted as an amalgam of "tomb" and "stele." The carved rock is thus a memorial that evokes the essence or spirit of the deceased.[2]
Dated to the first century BCE,Jason's Tomb bears an Aramaic inscription that states: "because I built for you a tomb (nephesh) and a memorial (qubr), be in peace in Jer[u]sa[le]m."[3]
TheTomb of Benei Hezir also bears an epithet in Hebrew that states: "This is the tomb and the stele/memorial (nephesh) ofEleazar...".[4]
A rural example of anefesh outside Jerusalem is found atHorvat Midras, an archaeological site containing the remains of a once-prosperous rural settlement in theJudean Foothills.[5] This monument consists of astepped pyramid built atop a 10-by-10-metre podium, reaching a total height of about seven metres and prominently positioned on a hilltop for maximum visibility. It was likely built by a wealthy family, possibly one whose influence rose through connections with theHerodian dynasty.[5]
In a Nabataeanvotiveinscription fromSalkhad, anAramaic heap of stones set up in memorial is described as "forAllat and herwgr", a term equated to theHasaiticnephesh. InSabaean, this term could mean atumulus above a tomb, while inArabic this term could indicate a grotto or a tomb.[6] The termnephesh is also linked to theGreekstele.[7]
Ananiconic culture, the Nabataean representation of deities lacked figural imagery. Related to betyls,nepheshes served as aniconicmemorial markers for the dead. Unlike theIsraelite prohibition of the graven image, Nabataean aniconism allowsanthropomorphic representation of deities but demonstrates a preference for non- figural imagery.Betyls are one form of Nabataean aniconic sculpture. Often explained as representations ofDushara, the central Nabataean deity, betyls occur in a wide variety of shapes, groupings, and niches. This variety suggests that betyls may be representative of other deities as well.[8]
The Nabataeannephesh is a standing stone,obeliskoid in shape, often featuring a blossom/pinecone or stylized crown on the top. Roughly carved or engraved inbas-relief, these structures are often set upon a base that bears the name of the deceased. Occurring outside and inside tombs, some are engraved near or in votive niches. However, manynepheshes can be found unconnected from tombs, and many line the paths toPetra or along other protruding rock faces such as those of theSiq.[9] An example of this type of funerary marker can be found in the Obelisk Tomb and Bab el-Siq Triclinium,Petra,Jordan.