In July 1920, theBolsheviks occupied the region. In November of that year,Bolshevik Russia andAzerbaijan both promised that Nakhchivan, alongside neighboringNagorno-Karabakh andZangezur, was an "integral part" ofArmenia.[6][d] However, on March 16, 1921, in accordance with the results of a referendum, the Bolshevik government declared theNakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which went on to become an autonomous republicwithin theAzerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924. In January 1990, Nakhchivan declared independence from theUSSR to protest against the suppression of the national movement in Azerbaijan, and became the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic within the newly independent Republic of Azerbaijan a year later.
Variations of the name Nakhchivan includeNakhichevan,[13]Naxcivan,[14]Naxçivan,[15]Nakhijevan,[16]Nakhchawan,[17]Nakhitchevan,[18]Nakhjavan,[19] andNakhdjevan.[20] Nakhchivan is mentioned inPtolemy'sGeography and by other classical writers as "Naxuana".[21][22]
The older form of the name isNaxčawan (Armenian:Նախճաւան).[23] According to philologistHeinrich Hübschmann, the name was originally borne by the namesake city (modern Nakhchivan) and later given to the region.[23] Hübschmann believed the name to be composed ofNaxič orNaxuč (probably a personal name) andawan, an Armenian word (ultimately of Iranian origin) meaning "place, town".[23]
In the Armenian tradition, the name of the region and its namesake city is connected with the Biblical narrative ofNoah's Ark and interpreted as meaning "place of the first descent" or "first resting place" (as if deriving fromնախ,nax,'first' andիջեւան,ijewan,'abode, resting place') due to it being regarded as the site whereNoah descended and settled after the landing of the Ark on nearbyMount Ararat.[24][25] It was probably under the influence of this tradition that the name changed in Armenian from the olderNaxčawan toNaxijewan.[25] Although this is a folk etymology,William Whiston believed Nakhchivan/Nakhijevan to be theApobatērion ("place of descent") mentioned by the first-century Jewish historianFlavius Josephus in connection with Noah's Ark, which would make the tradition connecting the name with the Biblical figure Noah very old, predating Armenia's conversion to Christianity in the early fourth century.[25][26][27]
History
Early history
A modernmausoleum marks the place inNakhchivan City, which is traditionally believed to be the site ofNoah's grave.
The oldest material culture artifacts found in the region date back to theNeolithic Age. On the other hand, Azerbaijani archaeologists have found that the history of Nakhchivan dates back to the Stone Age (Paleolithic). As a result of archaeological diggings, archaeologists discovered a great number of Stone-Age materials in different regions of Nakhchivan.[28] These materials were useful to study the Paleolithic age in Azerbaijan. Pollen analysis conducted in Gazma Cave (Sharur District) suggests that humans in the Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) lived not only in the mountain forests but also in the dry woodlands found in Nakhchivan.[29] Several archaeological sites dating from theNeolithic andChalcolithic periods have also been found in Nakhchivan, including the ancient towns ofNakhchivan Tepe (near the city of Nakhchivan) andOvchular Tepesi.[30] Some of the oldest salt mines in the world have also been discovered.[31]
The Nakhichevan region (light purple) at the time of Armenia'sKingdom of Vaspurakan (908–1021)
In 189 BC, Nakhchivan became part of the newKingdom of Armenia established byArtaxias I.[34] Within the kingdom, the region of present-day Nakhchivan was part of theAyrarat,Vaspurakan andSyunik provinces.[35] According to the early medieval Armenian historianMovses Khorenatsi, from the third to second centuries, the region belonged to the Muratsyannakharar family but after disputes with central power, KingArtavazd I massacred the family and seized the lands and formally attached it to the kingdom.[36] The area's status as a major trade center allowed it to prosper; as a result, many foreign powers coveted it.[17] According to the Armenian historianFaustus of Byzantium (5th century), when theSassanid Persians invaded Armenia, Sassanid KingShapur II (310–380) removed 2,000 Armenian and 16,000 Jewish families in 360–370.[37] In 428, the ArmenianArshakuni monarchy was abolished and Nakhchivan was annexed by Sassanid Persia. In 623, possession of the region passed to theByzantine Empire[32] but was soon left to its own rule.Sebeos referred to the area as Tachkastan. According to the 5th-century Armenian authorKoriun, Nakhchivan was the place where the Armenian scholarMesrop Mashtots finished the creation of theArmenian alphabet and opened the first Armenian schools. This occurred in the province ofGoghtan, which corresponds to Nakhchivan's modern Ordubad district.[38][39]
From 640 on, theArabs invaded Nakhchivan and undertook many campaigns in the area, crushing all resistance and attacking Armenian nobles who remained in contact with the Byzantines or who refused to pay tribute. In 705, after suppressing an Armenian revolt, Arab viceroyMuhammad ibn Marwan decided to eliminate the Armenian nobility.[40] In Nakhchivan, several hundred Armenian nobles were locked up in churches and burnt, while others were crucified.[18][40]
Caucasus region, beginning of the 13th century
The violence caused many Armenian princes to flee to the neighboringKingdom of Georgia or the Byzantine Empire.[40] Meanwhile, Nakhchivan itself became part of the autonomousPrincipality of Armenia under Arab control.[41] In the eighth century, Nakhchivan was one of the scenes[32] of an uprising against the Arabs led by Persian[42][43][44] revolutionaryBabak Khorramdin of the IranianKhorram-Dinān ("those of the joyous religion" in Persian).[45] Nakhchivan was finally released from Arab rule in the tenth century byBagratuni KingSmbat I and handed over to the princes of Syunik.[34] This region also was taken bySajids in 895 and between 909 and 929,Sallarid between 942 and 971 andShaddadid between 971 and 1045.
About 1055, theSeljuk Turks took over the region.[32] In the 12th century, the city of Nakhchivan became the capital of the state ofAtabegs of Azerbaijan, also known as Ildegizid state, which included most ofIranian Azerbaijan and a significant part of the South Caucasus.[46] The magnificent 12th-centurymausoleum of Momine Khatun, the wife of Ildegizid ruler, GreatAtabeg Jahan Pehlevan, is the main attraction of modern Nakhchivan.[47] At its heyday, the Ildegizid authority in Nakhchivan and some other areas of South Caucasus was contested by Georgia. The Armeno-Georgian princely house of Zacharids frequently raided the region when the Atabeg state was in decline in the early years of the 13th century. It was then plundered by invading Mongols in 1220 and Khwarezmians in 1225 and became part ofMongol Empire in 1236 when the Caucasus was invaded byChormaqan.[32] In the 13th century, during the reign of the Mongol horde rulerGüyük Khan, Christians were allowed to build churches in the strongly Muslim town of Nakhchivan; however, the conversion to Islam of Gazan khan brought about a reversal of this favor.[48] The 14th century saw the rise ofArmenian Catholicism in Nakhchivan,[17] though by the 15th century the territory became part of the states ofKara Koyunlu andAk Koyunlu.[32]
Iranian rule
Silver coin of ShahSuleiman I (r. 1666–1694), struck at the Nakhchivan mint, dated 1684/5
In the16th century, control of Nakhchivan passed to theSafavid dynasty. Until the demise of the Safavids, it remained as an administrative jurisdiction of theErivan Province (also known as Chokhur-e Sa'd).[49] Because of its geographic position, it frequently suffered during the wars between the Safavids and theOttoman Empire, from the 16th to 18th centuries. Turkish historianİbrahim Peçevi described the passing of the Ottoman army from theArarat plain to Nakhchivan:
On the twenty-seventh day they reached the plain of Nakhichevan. Out of fear of the victorious army, the people deserted the cities, villages, houses, and places of dwelling, which were so desolate that they were occupied by owls and crows and struck the onlooker with terror. Moreover, they [the Ottomans] ruined and laid waste all of the villages, towns, fields, and buildings along the road over a distance of four or five days' march so that there was no sign of any buildings or life.[34]
In 1604,Shah Abbas I of Iran, concerned that the skilled peoples of Nakhchivan, its natural resources, and the surrounding areas could get in danger due to its relatively close proximity to the Ottoman-Persian frontline, decided to institute ascorched earth policy. Heforcefully deported the entire hundreds of thousands of local population—Muslims, Jews, and Armenians alike—to leave their homes and move to the provinces south of theAras River.[50][51][52]
Many of the Armenian deportees were settled in the neighborhood ofIsfahan that was namedNew Julfa since most of the residents were from the originalJulfa. The Turkic Kangerli tribe was later permitted to move back underShah Abbas II (1642–1666) to repopulate the frontier region of his realm.[53] In the 17th century, Nakhchivan was the scene of a peasant movement led by Köroğlu against foreign invaders and "native exploiters".[32] In 1747, theNakhchivan Khanate emerged in the region after the death ofNader Shah Afshar.[32]
Passing to Imperial Russian rule
After the lastRusso-Persian War and theTreaty of Turkmenchay, the Nakhchivan Khanate passed into Russian possession in 1828 due toIran's forced ceding as a result of the outcome of the war and treaty.[54] With the onset of Russian rule, theTsarist authorities encouraged resettlement of Armenians to Nakhchivan and other areas of theCaucasus from thePersian andOttoman Empires. Special clauses of the Turkmenchay andAdrianople treaties allowed for this.[55]Alexandr Griboyedov, the Russian envoy toPersia, stated that by the time Nakhchivan came under Russian rule, there had been 290 native Armenians families in the province excluding the city of Nakhchivan, the number of Muslim families was 1,632, and the number of the Armenian immigrant families was 943. The same numbers in the city of Nakhchivan were 114, 392, and 285 respectively. With such a dramatic influx of Armenian immigrants, Griboyedov noted friction arising between the Armenian and Muslim populations. He requested Russian army commander CountIvan Paskevich to give orders on resettlement of some of the arriving people further to the region of Daralayaz to quiet the tensions.[56]
The Nakhchivan Khanate was dissolved in 1828 the same year it came into Russian possession, and its territory was merged with the territory of theErivan khanate and the area became theNakhichevan uezd of the newArmenian oblast, which later became theErivan Governorate in 1849. According to official statistics of the Russian Empire, by the turn of the 20th century Tatars (later known asAzerbaijanis) made up roughly 57% of theuezd's population, while Armenians constituted roughly 42%.[21] At the same time in the western half of theSharur-Daralayaz uezd, the territory of which would form the northern part of modern-day Nakhchivan (Sharur District), Tatars constituted 70.5% of the population, while Armenians made up 27.5%.[57] During theRussian Revolution of 1905, conflict erupted between the Armenians and the Tatars, culminating in theArmenian-Tatar massacres which saw violence in Nakhchivan in May of that year.[58]
In the final year ofWorld War I, Nakhchivan was the scene of more bloodshed between Armenians and Azerbaijanis, who both laid claim to the area. By 1914, the Armenian population had decreased slightly to 40% while the Azeri population increased to roughly 60%.[9] After theFebruary Revolution, the region was under the authority of the Special Transcaucasian Committee of theRussian Provisional Government and subsequently of the short-livedTranscaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. When the TDFR was dissolved in May 1918, Nakhchivan,Nagorno-Karabakh, Zangezur (today the Armenian province ofSyunik), andQazakh were heavily contested between the newly formed and short-lived states of theRepublic of Armenia and theAzerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR). In June 1918, the region came under Ottoman occupation.[32] The Ottomans proceeded to massacre 10,000 Armenians and razed 45 of their villages.[17] Under the terms of theArmistice of Mudros, the Ottomans agreed to pull their troops out of the Transcaucasus to make way for the forthcoming British military presence.[59]
Under British occupation, SirOliver Wardrop, British Chief Commissioner in the South Caucasus, made a border proposal to solve the conflict. According to Wardrop, Armenian claims against Azerbaijan should not go beyond the administrative borders of the former Erivan Governorate (which under prior Imperial Russian rule encompassed Nakhchivan), while Azerbaijan was to be limited to the governorates ofBaku andElizavetpol. This proposal was rejected by both Armenians (who did not wish to give up their claims to Qazakh, Zangezur and Karabakh) and Azeris (who found it unacceptable to give up their claims to Nakhchivan). As disputes between both countries continued, it soon became apparent that the fragile peace under British occupation would not last.[60]
In December 1918, with the support of Azerbaijan'sMusavat Party,Jafargulu Khan Nakhchivanski declared theRepublic of Aras in the Nakhchivan uyezd of the former Erivan Governorate assigned to Armenia by Wardrop.[32] The Armenian government did not recognize the new state and sent its troops into the region to take control of it. The conflict soon erupted into the violent Aras War.[60] British journalistC. E. Bechhofer Roberts described the situation in April 1920:
You cannot persuade a party of frenzied nationalists that two blacks do not make a white; consequently, no day went by without a catalogue of complaints from both sides, Armenians and Tartars [Azeris], of unprovoked attacks, murders, village burnings and the like. Specifically, the situation was a series of vicious cycles.[61]
By mid-June 1919, however, Armenia succeeded in establishing control over Nakhchivan and the whole territory of the self-proclaimed republic. The fall of the Aras republic triggered an invasion by the regular Azerbaijani army and by the end of July, theArmenian administration was ousted from Nakhchivan.[60] Again, more violence erupted leaving some ten thousand Armenians dead and forty-five Armenian villages destroyed.[17] Meanwhile, feeling the situation to be hopeless and unable to maintain any control over the area, the British decided to withdraw from the region in mid-1919.[62] Still, fighting between Armenians and Azeris continued and after a series of skirmishes that took place throughout the Nakhchivan district, a cease-fire agreement was concluded. However, the cease-fire lasted only briefly, and by early March 1920, more fighting broke out, primarily in Karabakh between Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijan's regular army. This triggered conflicts in other areas with mixed populations, including Nakhchivan.
Following the adoption of the name of "Azerbaijan" by the newly established Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, a naming dispute arose withQajar Iran, with the latter protesting this decision.[63] In tandem with this naming controversy, however, the young Azerbaijan Republic also faced a threat from the nascentSoviets in Moscow and the Armenians.[63] In order to escape the possibility of a Soviet invasion and an even greater imminent threat of an Armenian invasion, Muslim Nakhchivan proposed being annexed to Iran.[63] The then pro-British government in Tehran led byVossug ed Dowleh made endeavours amongst Baku's leadership to join Iran.[63] In order to promote this idea, Vosugh ed Dowleh dispatched two separate Iranian delegations; one to Baku and one to theParis Peace Conference in 1919.[63] The delegation at Baku, at the behest ofZia ol Din Tabatabaee, held intensive negotiations with the leadership of the Musavat party during the increasing chaos and instability in the city.[63] During the closing stages, an accord was reached between them; however, before the idea was presented to Vossug ed Dowleh in Tehran, the Communists took over Baku and terminated the Musavat-Ottoman rule.[63] The Iranian delegation at Paris, which was headed by foreign ministerFirouz Nosrat-ed-Dowleh III, reached a unity negotiation with the delegation from Baku and signed a confederation agreement.[64] In the end, these efforts proved to be of no avail, with the Soviets taking over the entirety of Transcaucasia.
Sovietization
In July 1920, the11th Soviet Red Army invaded and occupied the region and on July 28, declared theNakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic with "close ties" to theAzerbaijan SSR. In November, on the verge of taking over Armenia, the Bolsheviks, to attract public support, promised they would allot Nakhchivan to Armenia, along with Karabakh and Zangezur.Nariman Narimanov, leader of Bolshevik Azerbaijan, issued a declaration celebrating the "victory of Soviet power in Armenia" and proclaimed that both Nakhchivan and Zangezur should be awarded to the Armenian people as a sign of the Azerbaijani people's support for Armenia's fight against the former Armenian government:[6]
As of today, the old frontiers between Armenia and Azerbaijan are declared to be non-existent. Mountainous Karabagh, Zangezur and Nakhchivan are recognised to be integral parts of the Socialist Republic of Armenia.[65][66]
Vladimir Lenin, while welcoming this act of "great Soviet fraternity" where "boundaries had no meaning among the family of Soviet peoples", did not agree with the motion and instead called for the people of Nakhchivan to be consulted in a referendum. According to the formal figures of this referendum, held at the beginning of 1921, 90% of Nakhchivan's population wanted to be included in the Azerbaijan SSR "with the rights of an autonomous republic".[65] The decision to make Nakhchivan a part of modern-day Azerbaijan was cemented on March 16, 1921, in theTreaty of Moscow betweenSoviet Russia and the newly founded Republic of Turkey.[67] The agreement between Soviet Russia and Turkey also called for attachment of the formerSharur-Daralagezsky Uyezd (which had a solid Azeri majority) to Nakhchivan, thus allowing Turkey to share a border with the Azerbaijan SSR. This deal was reaffirmed on October 13, in theTreaty of Kars. Article V of the treaty stated the following:
The Turkish Government and the Soviet Governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan are agreed that the region of Nakhchivan, within the limits specified by Annex III to the present Treaty, constitutes an autonomous territory under the protection of Azerbaijan.[68]
Thus, on February 9, 1924, the Soviet Union officially established the Nakhchivan ASSR. Its constitution was adopted on April 18, 1926.[32]
As a constituent part of the Soviet Union, tensions lessened over the ethnic composition of Nakhchivan or any territorial claims regarding it. Instead, it became an important point of industrial production with particular emphasis on the mining of minerals such as salt. Under Soviet rule, it was once a major junction on the Moscow-Tehran railway line[69] as well as theBaku-Yerevan railway.[32] It also served as an important strategic area during theCold War, sharing borders with both Turkey (aNATO member state) and Iran (a close ally of the West until theIranian Revolution of 1979).
Map of the Nakhchivan ASSR within the Soviet Union
Facilities improved during Soviet times. Education and public health especially began to see some major changes. In 1913, Nakhchivan only had two hospitals with a total of 20 beds. The region was plagued by widespread diseases includingtrachoma andtyphus.Malaria, which mostly came from the adjoining Aras River, brought serious harm to the region. At any one time, between 70% and 85% of Nakhchivan's population was infected with malaria, and in the region of Norashen (present-day Sharur) almost 100% were struck with the disease. This situation improved dramatically under Soviet rule. Malaria was sharply reduced and trachoma, typhus, and relapsing fever were eliminated.[32]
During the Soviet era, Nakhchivan saw a great demographic shift. In 1926, 15% of the region's population was Armenian, but by 1979, this number had shrunk to 1.4%.[10] Azeris made up 85% in 1926, but 96% in 1979 (leaving the small remainder mixed or other). Three factors were involved: the emigration of Armenians to theArmenian SSR, the immigration of Azeris from Armenia, and the birth rate of Azeris being higher than that of Armenians.[10]
Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh noted similar though slower demographic trends and feared an eventual "de-Armenianization" of the area.[67] When tensions between Armenians and Azeris were reignited in the late-1980s by theNagorno-Karabakh conflict, Azerbaijan'sPopular Front managed to pressure the Azerbaijan SSR to instigate arailway and air blockade against Armenia, while another reason for the disruption of rail service to Armenia were attacks of Armenian forces on the trains entering the Armenian territory from Azerbaijan, which resulted in railroad personnel refusing to enter Armenia.[70][71] This effectively crippled Armenia's economy, as 85% of the cargo and goods arrived through rail traffic. In response, Armenia closed the railway to Nakhchivan, thereby strangling the exclave's only link to the rest of the Soviet Union. Thetransportation and economic blockade against Armenia was later joined by Turkey in 1993 and has persisted to today.
December 1989 saw unrest in Nakhchivan as its Azeri inhabitants moved to physically dismantle the Soviet border with Iran to flee the area and meet their ethnic Azeri cousins in northern Iran. This action was angrily denounced by the Soviet leadership and the Soviet media accused the Azeris of "embracingIslamic fundamentalism".[72]
Declaring independence
On Saturday, January 20, 1990,[73] theSupreme Soviet of the Nakhchivan ASSR issued a declaration stating the intention for Nakhchivan tosecede from the USSR to protest the Soviet Union's actions duringBlack January.[74] Iranian Press Agency,IRNA, reported that upon its independence, Nakhchivan asked Turkey, Iran, and theUnited Nations to come to its aid.[75] It was the first part of the Soviet Union to declare independence,[76] precedingLithuania's declaration by only a few weeks.[77] Subsequently, Nakhchivan was independent from Moscow and Baku but was then brought under control by the clan ofHeydar Aliyev.[78]
In the post-Soviet era
Heydar Aliyev, the future president of Azerbaijan, returned to his birthplace of Nakhchivan in 1990, after being ousted from his position in thePolitburo byMikhail Gorbachev in 1987. Soon after returning to Nakhchivan, Aliyev was elected to the Supreme Soviet by an overwhelming majority. Aliyev subsequently resigned from theCPSU, and after the failedAugust 1991 coup against Gorbachev, he called for complete independence for Azerbaijan and denouncedAyaz Mütallibov for supporting the coup. In late 1991, Aliyev consolidated his power base as chairman of the Nakhchivan Supreme Soviet and asserted Nakhchivan's near-total independence fromBaku.[79]
Nakhchivan became a scene of conflict during theFirst Nagorno-Karabakh War. On May 4, 1992, Armenian forces shelled theraion ofSadarak.[80][81][82] The Armenians claimed that the attack was in response to cross-border shelling of Armenian villages by Azeri forces from Nakhchivan.[83][84] David Zadoyan, a 42-year-old Armenian physicist and mayor of the region, said that the Armenians lost patience after months of firing by the Azeris. "If they were sitting on our hilltops and harassing us with gunfire, what do you think our response should be?" he asked.[85] The government of Nakhchivan denied these charges and instead asserted that the Armenian assault was unprovoked and specifically targeted the site of a bridge between Turkey and Nakhchivan.[84] "The Armenians do not react to diplomatic pressure," Nakhchivan foreign minister Rza Ibadov told the ITAR-Tass news agency, "It's vital to speak to them in a language they understand." Speaking to the agency from the Turkish capitalAnkara, Ibadov said that Armenia's aim in the region was to seize control of Nakhchivan.[86] According to Human Rights Watch, hostilities broke out after three people were killed when Armenian forces began shelling the region.[87]
The heaviest fighting took place on May 18, when the Armenians captured Nakhchivan's exclave ofKarki, a tiny territory through which Armenia's main north–south highway passes. The exclave presently remains under Armenian control.[88] After the fall ofShusha, the Mütallibov government of Azerbaijan accused Armenia of moving to take the whole of Nakhchivan (a claim that was denied by Armenian government officials). However, Heydar Aliyev declared a unilateral ceasefire on May 23 and sought to conclude a separate peace with Armenia. Armenian PresidentLevon Ter-Petrossian expressed his willingness to sign a cooperation treaty with Nakhchivan to end the fighting, and subsequently a cease-fire was agreed upon.[87]
The conflict in the area caused a harsh reaction from Turkey. Turkish Prime MinisterTansu Çiller announced that any Armenian advance on the main territory of Nakhchivan would result in a declaration of war against Armenia. Russian military leaders declared that "third party intervention into the dispute could trigger aThird World War". Thousands of Turkish troops were sent to the border between Turkey and Armenia in early September. Russian military forces in Armenia countered their movements by increasing troop levels along the Armenian-Turkish frontier and bolstering defenses in a tense period where war between the two seemed inevitable.[89] The tension reached its peak, when Turkish heavy artillery shelled the Nakhchivan side of the Nakhchivan-Armenian border, from the Turkish border for two hours. Iran also reacted to Armenia's attacks by conducting military maneuvers along its border with Nakhchivan in a move widely interpreted as a warning to Armenia.[90] However, Armenia did not launch any further attacks on Nakhchivan and the presence of Russia's military warded off any possibility that Turkey might play a military role in the conflict.[89] After a period of political instability, theParliament of Azerbaijan turned to Heydar Aliyev and invited him to return from exile in Nakhchivan to lead the country in 1993.
Recent times
Today, Nakhchivan retains its autonomy as the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, and is internationally recognized as a constituent part of Azerbaijan governed byits own elected legislative assembly.[91] A new constitution for Nakhchivan was approved in a referendum on November 12, 1995. The constitution was adopted by the republic's assembly on April 28, 1998, and has been in force since January 8, 1999.[92] However, the republic remains isolated, not only from the rest of Azerbaijan, but practically from the entireSouth Caucasus region. From 1995 until his resignation in December 2022, the region was ruled byVasif Talibov, who is related by marriage to Azerbaijan's ruling family, the Aliyevs.[93] He was known for his authoritarian[93] and largely corrupt rule of the region.[94] Most residents prefer to watch Turkish television as opposed to Nakhchivan television, which one Azerbaijani journalist criticised as "a propaganda vehicle for Talibov and the Aliyevs."[93]
Economic hardships and energy shortages plague the area. There have been many cases ofmigrant workers seeking jobs in neighboring Turkey. "Emigration rates to Turkey," one analyst said, "are so high that most of the residents of the Besler district inIstanbul are Nakhchivanis."[93] In 2007, an agreement was struck with Iran to obtain more gas exports, and a new bridge on the Aras River between the two countries was inaugurated in October 2007; the Azerbaijani president, Ilham Aliyev and the first vice-president of Iran,Parviz Davoodi also attended the opening ceremony.[95]
As part of the2020 ceasefire agreement which ended theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia, in the context of all economic and transport connections in the region to be unblocked, agreed "to guarantee the security of transport connections between the western regions of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic in order to arrange unobstructed movement of persons, vehicles and cargo in both directions". As part of the agreement, these transport communications are to be patrolled byBorder Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation.[96]
Split from Nakhchivan (Babek) during Sovietization[17] Territory roughly corresponds to the Čahuk (Չահւք) district of the historic Syunik region within theKingdom of Armenia[98]
Formerly known as Bashnorashen during its incorporation into the Soviet Union and Ilyich (afterVladimirIlyich Lenin) from the post-Sovietization period to 1990[17]
^abTatars (later known as Azerbaijanis) combined with other Muslims.
Ethnic groups in Nakhchivan AR (2019 census):[110]
Azerbaijanis (99.7%)
Kurds (0.25%)
Others (0.03%)
As of 2019 census, Nakhchivan's population was estimated to be 457,619. Most of the population areAzerbaijanis, who constituted 99.72% of the population in 2019, whileKurds constituted the largest minority with a 0.25% of the population.[109]
The Kurds of Nakhchivan are mainly found in the districts ofSadarak andTeyvaz.[111] The remainingArmenians were expelled by Azerbaijani forces during the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh as part of theforceful exchange of population between Armenia and Azerbaijan. According to a 1932 Soviet estimate, 85% of the area's population was rural, while only 15% was urban. This urban percentage increased to 18% by 1939 and 27% by 1959.[17] As of 2011, 127,200 people of Nakhchivan's total population of 435,400 live in urban areas, making the urban percentage 29.2%.[112]
Nakhchivan enjoys a highHuman Development Index; its socio-economic prowess far exceeds that of the neighbouring countries except for Turkey, as well as Azerbaijan itself. According to the report of Nakhchivan AR Committee of Statistics on June 30, 2014, for the end of 2013, some socio-economical data, including the following, are unveiled:
Nakhchivan isarid and mountainous. Its highest peak isMount Kapudzhukh 3,904 m (12,808 ft) and its most distinctive isİlandağ (Snake Mountain) 2,415 m (7,923 ft), which is visible fromNakhchivan City. According to legend, the cleft in its summit was formed by the keel of Noah's Ark as the floodwaters abated.[117]Qazangödağ 3,829 m (12,562 ft) is another major peak.
Both the absolute minimum temperature (−33 °C or −27.4 °F) and the absolute maximum temperature (46 °C or 114.8 °F) were observed inJulfa andOrdubad.[118]
Nakhchivan's majorindustries include the mining of minerals such as salt,molybdenum, and lead.Dryland farming, developed during the Soviet years, has allowed the region to expand into the growing of wheat (mostly cultivated on the plains of theAras River),barley, cotton, tobacco,orchard fruits,mulberries, and grapes for producing wine. Other industries includecotton ginning/cleaning, silk spinning, fruit canning, meatpacking, and, in the drier regions,sheep farming. Processing of minerals, salt,radio engineering, farm ginning, preserving, silk products, meat, and dairy, bottling ofmineral waters, clothing, and furniture are the principal branches of Nakhchivan's industry. TheNakhchivan Automobile Plant (Azerbaijani:Naxçıvan Avtomobil Zavodu, abbr. NAZ), is a prominent automobile manufacturer in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. The economy suffered a severe blow in 1988 with the loss of access to bothraw materials and markets, due to theFirst Nagorno-Karabakh War. Although new markets are emerging inIran and Turkey, this isolation still persists to this day, impairing development. The economy of Nakhchivan is based on agriculture, mining, andfood processing, however, 75% of the republic's budget is supplied by the central government inBaku.[citation needed]
The Republic is rich in minerals. Nakhchivan possesses deposits ofmarble,lime, andgypsum. The deposits of therock salt are exhausted inNehram, Nakhchivan, andSustin. The importantmolybdenum mines are currently closed as a consequence of the exclave's isolation. There are a lot ofmineral springs such asBadamli,Sirab, Nagajir, Kiziljir where water containsarsenic. About 90% of the agricultural land is now in private hands. However, agriculture has become a poorly capitalized,backyard activity.Production has dropped sharply and large-scale commercial agriculture has declined. Over two-thirds of the land are rocky slopes anddeserts, therefore the area of arable lands is quite limited. The main crops – cotton and tobacco – are cultivated in thePriAraz plain, nearSharur andNakhchivan City. Three-quarters of the grain production, especiallywinter wheat is concentrated on the irrigated lands of theSharur plain and in the basin of the Nakhchivan river. Vine growing in Nakhchivan has an ancient tradition, in the Araz valley and foothills. Very hot summers and long warm autumns make it possible to grow such highlysaccharine grapes asbayan-shiraz,tebrizi,shiraz. Wines such as "Nakhchivan" "Shahbuz", "Abrakunis", at "Aznaburk" are of reasonable quality and very popular. Fruit production is quite important, mainly ofquince, pear, peach, apricot,fig, almonds, andpomegranate. Cattle ranching is another traditional branch of Nakhchivan farming. Due to the dry climate, pastures in Nakhchivan are unproductive, thereforesheep breeding prevails over other livestock production. Winter pastures stretch on the PriAraz plain, on the foothills and mountainsides to the altitude of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). But the summer pastures go up on the high-mountain area to an altitude of 2,300–3,200 metres (7,500–10,500 ft). The most widespread sheep variety is "balbas". These sheep are distinguished by their productivity and snow-white silky wool which is widely used in the manufacture of carpets. Horned and small cattle are bred everywhere, especially in the environs of Sharur and Nakhchivan.Buffaloes are also bred here.[citation needed]
Although intentions to facilitate tourism have been declared by the government, it is still at best incipient. Until 1997 tourists needed special permission to visit, which has now been abolished, making travel easier. Facilities are very basic and heating fuel is hard to find in the winter, but the arid mountains borderingArmenia and Iran are magnificent. In terms of services, Nakhchivan offers very basic facilities and lacks heating fuel during the winter.[32]
In 2007 thePoldasht-Shah Takhti Bridge, which connectsPoldasht, West Azerbaijan Province,Iran, andShah Takhti in Nakhchivan, was completed, allowing residents of the republic to access Azerbaijan proper via Iran without having to cross Armenian territory.[119]
The number of named Armenian churches known to have existed in the Nakhchivan region isover 280. As early as 1648, French traveller Alexandre de Rhodes reported seeing more than ten thousand Armenian tombstones made of marble in Julfa.[120] The number of ecclesiastical monuments still standing in Nakhchivan in the 1980s is estimated to be between 59 and 100. The author and journalistSylvain Besson believe them to have all been subsequently destroyed as part of a campaign by the Government of Azerbaijan to erase all traces of Armenian culture on its soil.[121]
When the 14th-century church of St. Stephanos atAbrakunis was visited[by whom?] in 2005, it was found to have been recently destroyed, with its site reduced to a few bricks sticking out of loose, bare earth. Similar complete destruction had happened to the 16th century St. Hakop-Hayrapet church inShurut. The Armenian churches in Norashen,Kırna andGah that were standing in the 1980s had also vanished.[122][123][124]
The most publicised case of mass destruction concerns gravestones at a medieval cemetery inJulfa, with photographic, video and satellite evidence supporting the charges.[125][126][127] In April 2006,The Times of London wrote about the destruction of the cemetery in the following way:
A Medieval cemetery regarded as one of the wonders of the Caucasus has been erased from the Earth in an act of cultural vandalism likened to the Taleban blowing up the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan in 2001. The Jugha cemetery was a unique collection of several thousand carved stone crosses on Azerbaijan's southern border with Iran. But after 18 years of conflict between Azerbaijan and its western neighbour, Armenia, it has been confirmed that the cemetery has vanished."[128]
Armenians have long sounded the alarm that the Azerbaijanis intend to eliminate all evidence of the Armenian presence in Nakhchivan and, to this end, have been carrying out massive and irreversible destruction of Armenian cultural traces. "The irony is that this destruction has taken place not during a time of war but at a time of peace," Armenian Foreign Minister Vartan Oskanian toldThe Times.[128] Azerbaijan has consistently denied these accusations. For example, according to the Azerbaijani ambassador to the US,Hafiz Pashayev, the videos and photographs "show some unknown people destroying mid-size stones", and "it is not clear of what nationality those people are", and the reports are Armenian propaganda designed to divert attention from what he claimed was a "state policy (by Armenia) to destroy the historical and cultural monuments in the occupied Azeri territories".[129]
A number of international organizations have confirmed the complete destruction of the cemetery. TheInstitute for War and Peace Reporting reported on April 19, 2006, that "there is nothing left of the celebrated stone crosses of Jugha."[130]
According to theInternational Council on Monuments and Sites (Icomos), the Azerbaijan government removed 800 khachkars in 1998. Though the destruction was halted following protests from UNESCO, it resumed four years later. By January 2003 "the 1,500-year-old cemetery had completely been flattened" according to Icomos.[131][132] On December 8, 2010, theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science released a report entitled "Satellite Images Show Disappearance of Armenian Artifacts in Azerbaijan".[133] The report contained the analysis of high resolution satellite images of the Julfa cemetery, which verified the destruction of the khachkars.
TheEuropean Parliament has formally called on Azerbaijan to stop the demolition as a breach of theUNESCO World Heritage Convention.[134] According to its resolution regarding cultural monuments in the South Caucasus, the European Parliament "condemns strongly the destruction of the Julfa cemetery as well as the destruction of all sites of historical importance that has taken place on Armenian or Azerbaijani territory, and condemns any such action that seeks to destroy cultural heritage."[135] In 2006, Azerbaijan barred a Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) mission from inspecting and examining the ancient burial site, stating that it would only accept a delegation if it also visited Armenian-occupied territory. "We think that if a comprehensive approach is taken to the problems that have been raised," said Azerbaijani foreign ministry spokesmanTahir Tagizade, "it will be possible to study Christian monuments on the territory of Azerbaijan, including in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic."[136]
A renewed attempt was planned by PACE inspectors for August 29 – September 6, 2007, led by British MPEdward O'Hara. As well as Nakhchivan, the delegation would visit Baku, Yerevan, Tbilisi, and Nagorno Karabakh.[137] The inspectors planned to visit Nagorno Karabakh via Armenia; however, on August 28, the head of the Azerbaijani delegation to PACE released a demand that the inspectors must enter Nagorno Karabakh via Azerbaijan. On August 29, PACE Secretary-General Mateo Sorinas announced that the visit had to be cancelled because of the difficulty in accessing Nagorno Karabakh using the route required by Azerbaijan. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Armenia issued a statement saying that Azerbaijan had stopped the visit "due solely to their intent to veil the demolition of Armenian monuments in Nakhijevan".[138]
In 2022, theCornell University-led monitoring group Caucasus Heritage Watch released a report detailing the "complete destruction of Armenian cultural heritage" in Nakhchivan starting the 1990s.[139] According the report, out of 110 medieval and early modern Armenian monasteries, churches and cemeteries identified from archival sources, 108 were deliberately and systematically destroyed between 1997 and 2011.[139] In some cases, such as theSaint Thomas Monastery inYukhari Aylis (Agulis), mosques or other civic buildings were built on the site of the destroyed buildings.[139]
Recognition of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Nakhchivan is one of the cultural centers of Azerbaijan.[citation needed][neutrality isdisputed] In 1923, a musical subgroup was organized at the State Drama Theater (renamed theNakhchivan Music and Drama Theater in 1965).[142] TheAras Song and Dance Ensemble (established in 1959) is another famous group. Dramatic performances staged by an amateur dance troupe were held in Nakhchivan in the late 19th century. Theatrical art also greatly contributed to Nakhchivan's culture. The creative work ofJalil Mammadguluzadeh,Huseyn Javid, andHuseyn Arablinski (the first Azerbaijani theatre director) stemmed from Nakhchivan.[32] The region has also produced noteworthyArmenian artists, too, such as Soviet actressHasmik Agopyan. Nakhchivan has also at times been mentioned in works of literature. World-renowned Soviet composerAram Khatchaturian, the ArmenianHovnatanian painter family, as well as the actorYervand Manaryan, have shaped the cultural wealth of Nakchivan, too.[143][144]Nizami, the Persian poet, once wrote:
Radio broadcasting in Nakhchivan began on 1 April 1932 under Soviet rule. Television broadcasting began later on 12 March 1963, with the launch ofNakhchivan TV. State-owned radio and television broadcasting in the autonomous republic is managed by the State Committee for Television and Radio Broadcasting of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. The Nukhchikhan Information Agency was founded in 2018.[145] Under theMinistry of Communications and New Technologies, the Voice of Nakhchivan radio network was founded in 2001 and theKanal 35 television station was founded in 2004.[146] Both ceased operations in May 2023.[147][148]
Archaeology
The very earlyKura-Araxes culture flourished in Nakhchivan before spreading to many other areas, as far as Palestine. This region reveals the genesis and chronology of thisChalcolithic and Early Bronze Age culture.Kültəpə is an important early Chalcolithic site in Nakhchivan. Another such site isMakhta Kultepe. Recent excavations atOvcular Tepesi allow the dating of the initial stage of formation of Kura-Araxes culture to 4200–3400 BC.[149]
The Naxçivan Archaeological Project is the first-ever joint American-Azerbaijani program of surveys and excavations, that was active since 2006.[150] In 2010–11, they have excavated the large Iron Age fortress ofOğlanqala.[151]
In Nakhchivan, there are also numerous archaeological monuments of the early Iron Age, and they shed a lot of light on the cultural, archaeological and agricultural developments of that era. There are important sites such as Ilikligaya, Irinchoy, and the Sanctuary of Iydali Piri in Kangarli region.[152]
Notable people
Heydar Aliyev, former President of Azerbaijan, was born in Nakhchivan.
^"As of today, the old frontiers between Armenia and Azerbaijan are declared to be non-existent. Mountainous Karabakh, Zangezur and Nakhchivan are recognised to be integral parts of the Socialist Republic of Armenia."[7][8]
^The Nakhichevan uezd did not include the population of the Sharur or Sadarak districts which were part of theSharur-Daralayaz andErivanuezds, respectively.
^abcHiwbshman, H. (1907).Hin Hayotsʻ Teghwoy Anunnerě [Ancient Armenian Place Names] (in Armenian). Translated by Pilējikchean, H. B. Vienna: Mkhitʻarean Tparan. pp. 222–223, 385.
^Hakobyan, T. Kh.; Melik-Bakhshyan, St. T.; Barseghyan, H. Kh. (1991)."Nakhijevan".Hayastani ev harakitsʻ shrjanneri teghanunneri baṛaran [Dictionary of toponymy of Armenia and adjacent territories] (in Armenian). Vol. 3. Yerevan State University. pp. 951–953.
^(in Armenian)Ter-Ghevondyan, Aram."Մուրացյան" (Muratsyan). Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. vol. viii. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1982, p. 98.
^M. Whittow,"The Making of Byzantium: 600–1025", pp. 195, 203, 215: Excerpts:[Iranian] Azerbaijan was the scene of frequent anti-Caliphate and anti-Arab revolts during the eighth and ninth centuries, and Byzantine sources talk of Persian warriors seeking refuge in the 830s from the caliph's armies by taking service under the Byzantine emperor Theophilos. [...] Azerbaijan had a Persian population and was a traditional centre of the Zoroastrian religion. [...] The Khurramites were a [...] Persian sect, influenced by Shiite doctrines, but with their roots in a pre-Islamic Persian religious movement.
^Armenian historianVardan Areveltsi, c. 1198 – 1271 notes: In these days, a man of the PERSIAN race, named Bab, who had went from Baltat killed many of the race of Ismayil (what Armenians called Arabs) by sword and took many slaves and thought himself to be immortal. ..Ma'mun for 7 years was battling in the Greek territories and ..came back to Mesopotamia. See: La domination arabe en Armènie, extrait de l’ histoire universelle de Vardan, traduit de l’armènian et annotè, J. Muyldermans, Louvain et Paris, 1927, pg 119:En ces jours-lá, un homme de la race PERSE, nomm é Bab, sortant de Baltat, faiser passer par le fil de l’épée beaucoup de la race d’Ismayēl tandis qu’il..Original Grabar: Havoursn haynosig ayr mi hazkes Barsitz Pap anoun yelyal i Baghdada, arganer zpazoums i sour suseri hazken Ismayeli, zpazoums kerelov. yev anser zinkn anmah. yev i mium nvaki sadager yeresoun hazar i baderazmeln youroum ent Ismayeli
^Ibn Hazm (994–1064), the Arab historian mentions the different Iranian revolts against the Caliphate in his book Al-fasl fil al-Milal wal-Nihal. He writes:The Persians had the great land expanse and were greater than all other people and thought of themselves as better... after their defeat by Arabs, they rose up to fight against Islam, but God did not give them victory. Among their leaders were Sanbadh, Muqanna', Ostadsis and Babak and others. Full original Arabic:
«أن الفرس كانوا من سعة الملك وعلو اليد على جميع الأمم وجلالة الخطير في أنفسهم حتى أنهم كانوا يسمون أنفسهم الأحرار والأبناء وكانوا يعدون سائر الناس عبيداً لهم فلما امتحنوا بزوال الدولة عنهم على أيدي العرب وكانت العرب أقل الأمم عند الفرس خطراً تعاظمهم الأمر وتضاعفت لديهم المصيبة وراموا كيد الإسلام بالمحاربة في أوقات شتى ففي كل ذلك يظهر الله سبحانه وتعالى الحق وكان من قائمتهم سنبادة واستاسيس والمقنع وبابك وغيرهم ». See: al-Faṣl fī al-milal wa-al-ahwāʾ wa-al-niḥal / taʾlīf Abī Muḥammad ʻAlī ibn Aḥmad al-maʻrūf bi-Ibn Ḥazm al-Ẓāhirī; taḥqīq Muḥammad Ibrāhīm Naṣr, ʻAbd al-Raḥmān ʻUmayrah. Jiddah : Sharikat Maktabāt ʻUkāẓ, 1982.
^abcdefgAhmadi, Hamid (2017). "The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism". In Kamrava, Mehran (ed.).The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus. Oxford University Press. p. 108.ISBN978-0190869663.
^Ahmadi, Hamid (2017). "The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism". In Kamrava, Mehran (ed.).The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–109.ISBN978-0190869663.
^abTim Potier.Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal, p. 4.ISBN90-411-1477-7
^Alexander Griboyedov (1828).Рапорт А.С.Грибоедова графу И.Ф.Паскевичу (in Russian). Moscow: А.С.Грибоедов. Сочинения. Москва, Художественная литература, 1988 г., сс. 611–614.
^Ivan Shopen (1852).Шопен И. Исторический памятник состояния Армянской области в эпоху её присоединения к Российской Империи. [Ethnic Processes in the South Cacucasus in 19th–20th centuries] (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Имп. Академия наук (Imperial Academy of Sciences).
^Кавказский календарь на 1917 год [Caucasian calendar for 1917] (in Russian) (72nd ed.). Tiflis: Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom. 1917. pp. 214–221. Archived fromthe original on November 4, 2021.
^Christopher J. Walker, ed., Armenia and Karabakh, op. cit., pp. 64–65
^Alexande de Rhodes, Divers Voyages et Missions du P. A. de Rhodes en la Chine, &AutresRoyaumes avec son Retour en Europe par la Perse et I’Armenie (Paris: Sebastian Cramoisy, 1653), Part 3, 63. Second edition (Paris: 1854), 416. "Out of the walls of this city [Julfa] which now is only a desert, I saw a beautiful monument to the ancient piety of the Armenians. It is a vast site, where there are at the very least ten thousand tombstones of marble, all marvellously well carved."
^Sylvain Besson, "L'Azerbaidjian Face au Desastre Culturel", Le Temps (Switzerland), November 4, 2006.
^Switzerland-Armenia Parliamentary Group (ed.) "The destruction of Jugha and the Entire Armenian Cultural Heritage in Nakhchivan", Bern, 2006. p73-77.
Floor, Willem M. (2008).Titles and Emoluments in Safavid Iran: A Third Manual of Safavid Administration, by Mirza Naqi Nasiri. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers. p. 248.ISBN978-1933823232.
Further reading
Dan, Roberto (2014). "Inside the Empire: Some Remarks on the Urartian and Achaemenid Presence in the Autonomous Republic of Nakhchivan".Iran and the Caucasus.18 (4):327–344.doi:10.1163/1573384X-20140402.
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