Mughal architecture is the style of architecture developed in theMughal Empire in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever-changing extent of their empire in theIndian subcontinent. It developed from the architectural styles of earlierIndo-Islamic architecture and fromIranian andCentral Asian architectural traditions, particularlyTimurid architecture.^{[3][4][5][6][7]} It also further incorporated and syncretized influences from widerIndian architecture, especially during the reign ofAkbar (r. 1556–1605).^[3][4][6][7] Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate ornamentation. Examples of the style are found mainly in modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.

Mughal architecture

Top:Taj Mahal inAgra, India, the most famous example of Mughal architecture and one of India's most recognisable landmarks[1] Middle:Panch Mahal inFatehpur Sikri, India Bottom:Badshahi Mosque inLahore, Pakistan, the last and largest imperial mosque built by the Mughals[2]
Years active	16th–19th centuries (primarily)

The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory ofBabur atPanipat in 1526. During his five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. His grandsonAkbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments wereAgra Fort, the fort-city ofFatehpur Sikri, and theBuland Darwaza. Akbar's sonJahangir commissioned theShalimar Gardens in Kashmir.

Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign ofShah Jahan, who constructed theTaj Mahal, theJama Masjid of Delhi, theShalimar Gardens of Lahore, and renovated theLahore Fort. High-ranking officials below the emperor were also able to build major monuments, as with the example of theWazir Khan Mosque. The last of the great Mughal patrons wasAurangzeb, who built theBadshahi Mosque,Bibi Ka Maqbara,Moti Masjid etc.

Mughal emperors and elites consciously used architecture as a way to publicly display their presence and power. The extensive architectural patronage of the Mughals was made possible by their considerable wealth, which exceeded that of other contemporary Muslim empires like theOttomans andSafavids.^[8] In the Indian subcontinent, more monuments survive from the Mughal period than any other period.^[8] Major monuments of this time include mosques, mausoleums, palaces, gardens, and fortresses.^[5][9]

TheMughal dynasty's founder,Babur, was initially based inKabul, present-day Afghanistan.^[10] After the expansion into the Indian subcontinent, the imperial capital was, depending on the period, inAgra (present-day India),Delhi, orLahore (present-day Pakistan), along with other sites that served for short periods.^[11] In several cases, Mughal emperors built new imperial cities as their capitals, such asFatehpur Sikri byAkbar andShahjahanabad byShah Jahan.^[12] These capitals contain some of the greatest displays of Mughal monumental architecture, but imperial patronage was also directed across various cities and rural sites throughout the empire.^[9]

Mughal architecture was derived from three main architectural traditions: localIndo-Islamic architecture, thearchitecture of Islamic Persia and Central Asia, and indigenousHindu architecture.^[4] Because earlier Indo-Islamic architecture already borrowed from both Hindu and Islamic architectural styles, certain influences in Mughal architecture can be difficult to attribute to one source or the other. With regards to Hindu architecture, localRajput palaces were likely a key influence.^[4]

Early Mughal architecture developed from existing Indo-Islamic architecture while following the model ofTimurid architecture (based in Central Asia), due in part to theTimurid ancestry of Babur.^[3][5][6][7] By the late 16th century, a more distinctive Mughal tradition emerged based on the combination of these two sources.^[7]

Under the reign of Akbar (r. 1556–1605), the use of Hindu architectural elements was especially prolific, including in high-profile construction projects like Fatehpur Sikri.[3] During his reign in particular, non-Muslims were present among the highest-ranking officials and were able to become patrons of architecture as well. The most notable example isRaja Man Singh, a Hinduamir who built bothHindu temples and Muslim mosques and shrines.^[7]

Under Akbar's successors, there was a shift towards more typically Islamic architectural designs.^[3] During the reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), a "classical" Mughal style was consolidated and remained essentially in use until the end of the Mughal period.[7] A certain level of stylistic consistency was achieved throughout the empire at this period thanks to the role of a central department of architects, similar to the imperial architects that existed in the Ottoman Empire.^[5]

Mughal architecture is distinguished by an elegant style in which careful linear divisions of spaces and surfaces took priority over the more three-dimensional combination of elements that distinguished earlier Indo-Islamic architecture.^[5] The use of colour was also relatively restrained, with emphasis instead on finishing surfaces with high-quality, polished materials.Bulbous domes andogive arches were among the most prominent recurring elements.^[5] In addition to domes and arches, the local tradition oftrabeate construction also continued, especially in secular architecture like palaces.^[5]

Another distinguishing characteristic was the use of red sandstone as a building material, along with white marble. This replaced the prominence of brick in earlier Indo-Islamic architecture,^[5] though construction materials still varied depending on the region.^[4] Sandstone is a very hard material, but local Indian stonemasons were skilled in carving it with intricate detail, which was another distinguishing feature of the Mughal style. White marble was initially used as a cladding to compliment and finish the look of sandstone buildings, as inHumayun's Tomb, but later it was used on a grander scale to cover entire buildings, as in theTaj Mahal.^[4] Brick was sometimes still used for domes and arches, but in these cases it was usually faced with plaster or stone as a finish.^[4]

Decorative motifs includedgeometric and floral designs, as well as elaborate inscriptions inArabic,Persian, and even in local languages during the late Mughal period.^[13] Decoration was commonly executed intile or stone.^[4]

Tilework was more commonly applied to the exterior of buildings and existed in two main types:cuerda seca and mosaic tilework.Cuerda seca tiles were decorated with coloured glazes separated by dark lines, while mosaic tilework consisted of single-coloured tile pieces that were cut and fitted together to create larger patterns.^[4]

Stonework was of high quality and marks one of the most sophisticated aspects of Mughal decoration. Carved stonework included ornately-sculpted pillars and corbels, flat panels carved in lowrelief with depictions of flowers, and pierced marble screens known asjalis.^[4]Pietra dura, known asparchin kari in the Indian subcontinent,^[14] was the technique of decorating withinlaid stone. It developed in this region independently from the Italian technique that is widely known elsewhere.^[4]

Elements of earlier Indo-Islamic architecture that continued in Mughal architecture are thecusped (multifoil) arches, which appeared earlier in the architecture ofDelhi andGujarat, as well as thedo-chala roof, a feature originating inBengali architecture that was adopted in the architecture of theBengal Sultanate.^[4]

Features of Persian or Central Asian (Timurid) influence were theiwan (a vaulted space open to one side), the use of domes, the pointedfour-centred arch, the use of decorative tilework, and thechahar bagh type of garden, along with various other motifs and building layouts.^[4] In dome construction, Persian-stylesquinches were used in some cases, but in other cases the domes were supported by flat beams over the corners of the chamber.^[4]

Elements of Mughal architecture that demonstrate Hindu influences include the use of trabeate constructions, the use ofcorbel arches instead of arches withvoussoirs, and the style of ornately-carved pillars.^[4]Jharokhas (projecting balconies),chhatris (domed kiosks), andchhajjas (wide stoneeaves) are also elements that were borrowed from local Hindu architecture and became very popular in Mughal architecture. Some elements, such as projecting balconies, had parallels in Islamic architecture elsewhere but their specific Mughal forms were of local inspiration.^[4]

Large fortified citadels or palace complexes, such as theAgra Fort and theRed Fort in Delhi, were enclosed in massive walls reinforced by semi-circular towers and entered via monumental gateways. Inside, the classic Mughal palace was laid out with symmetrical gardens and various pavilions. Open pavilions with rows of cusped arches were a recurring feature. Rich decoration was used to embellish rooms and halls.^[4]

Gardens were a favourite concern of Mughal emperors, whether they were created as separate, dedicated garden sites or as the setting for pavilions and mausoleums within larger architectural complexes. They were laid out in a formal manner with terraces, precise divisions, and water features.^[4]

Mosques were relatively more restrained in their decoration but were built on a grand scale. The typical mosque layout in the classic Mughal era involved a large rectangular courtyard surrounded by anarcade on three sides and a prayer hall on one side. The prayer hall consisted of a wide vaulted hall fronted by an arcade of monumental arches, with the central archway consisting of a larger iwan rising above the others.^[4]

The most monumental and elaborate Mughal structures were royal mausoleums, deliberately designed to show off the power and sophistication of their patrons. The classic Mughal tomb was an octagonal or rectangular structure with a central dome and outer iwans, raised on a terraced platform.^[4]

Other public buildings and infrastructure works included roads,milestones (known askos minar),caravanserais (inns for merchants and travelers), and bridges. These were more functional in nature and less decorative, though some caravanserais were embellished with elaborate gateways.^[4]

The architectural patronage of Babur, the first Mughal emperor, is mainly known for its terraced gardens. These gardens, often established in palaces and citadels, were modeled on the Persianchahar bagh ("four gardens") type, in which gardens are geometrically divided into different plots, usually four equal parts. This type followed Timurid antecedents, though the use of water channels as linear dividers may have been a Mughal innovation.^[5] Babur himself was initially buried at Agra, but in 1644 his tomb was moved to one of his favourite gardens in Kabul, now known as theGardens of Babur.^[8] Some of the architectures Babur created in the present-day India includesAram Bagh in Agra, Lotus Garden in Dholpur and more.^[15][16]

In religious architecture, Babur's mosques also followed the designs of earlier Timurid mosques, with a tall central entrance portal (pishtaq), a courtyard, and a prayer hall covered by a large central dome flanked by side aisles covered by smaller domes. An example of this is hismosque at Panipat.^[5][7]

Agra fort is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site inAgra, Uttar Pradesh. The major part of Agra fort was built byAkbar from 1565 to 1574. Thearchitecture of the fort clearly indicates the free adoption of theRajput planning and construction. Some of the important buildings in the fort areJahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jahangiri Mahal has a courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed halls and rooms.

Humayun's tomb is thetomb of theMughal EmperorHumayun in Delhi, India. The tomb was commissioned by Humayun's first wife and chief consort, EmpressBega Begum (also known as Haji Begum), in 1569–70, and designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas and his son, Sayyid Muhammad, Persian architects chosen by her. It was the first garden-tomb on theIndian subcontinent. It is often regarded as the first mature example of Mughal architecture.

Akbar's greatest architectural achievement was the construction ofFatehpur Sikri, his capital city near Agra at a trade and Jain pilgrimages.^[17][18][19] The construction of the walled city was started in 1569 and completed in 1574.

It contained some of the most beautiful buildings – both religious and secular which testify to the Emperor's aim of achieving social, political and religious integration. The main religious buildings were the hugeJama Masjid and smallTomb of Salim Chisti. Buland Darwaza, also known as the Gate of Magnificence, was built by Akbar in 1576 to commemorate his victory over Gujarat and the Deccan. It is 40 metres high and 50 metres from the ground. The total height of the structure is about 54 metres from ground level.

The Haramsara, the royal seraglio inFatehpur Sikri was an area where the royal women lived. The opening to the Haramsara is from the Khwabgah side separated by a row of cloisters. According to Abul Fazl, inAin-i-Akbari, the inside of Harem was guarded by senior and active women, outside the enclosure theeunuchs were placed, and at a proper distance there were faithfulRajput guards.^[20]

Jodha bai Palace is the largest palace in the Fatehpur Sikri seraglio, connected to the minorharamsara quarters. The main entrance is double storied, projecting out of thefacade to create a kind ofporch leading into a recessed entrance with a balcony. Inside there is a quadrangle surrounded by rooms. The columns of rooms are ornamented with a variety ofHindu sculptural motifs.

TheTomb of Salim Chishti is famed as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India, built during the years 1580 and 1581. The tomb, built in 1571 in the corner of the mosque compound, is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it. It enshrines the burial place of the Sufi saint, Salim Chisti (1478 – 1572), a descendant of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, who lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri. The mausoleum, constructed by Akbar as a mark of his respect for the Sufi saint, who foretold the birth of his son.

TheBegum Shahi Mosque is an early 17th-century mosque situated in theWalled City of Lahore,Pakistan. The mosque was built between 1611 and 1614 during the reign ofMughal EmperorJahangir by his mother,Mariam-Uz-Zamani,^[21][22][23] and is Lahore's earliest dated Mughal-era mosque.^[24][21][25] It is known for its exquisite fresco decoration of geometric and floral motifs painted on stucco, along with inscriptions of thenames of God.^[24][21][25] The mosque would later influence construction of the largerWazir Khan Mosque a few decades later.^[26]

The tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah, is a mausoleum in the city ofAgra in theIndian state ofUttar Pradesh. Often described as a "jewel box", sometimes called the "Bachcha Taj", as the tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah is often regarded as a draft of theTaj Mahal.

Rather than building huge monuments like his predecessors to demonstrate their power,Shah Jahan built elegant monuments. The force and originality of this previous building style gave way under Shah Jahan to a delicate elegance and refinement of detail, illustrated in the palaces erected during his reign atAgra,Delhi andLahore. Some examples include theTaj Mahal atAgra, the tomb of his wifeMumtaz Mahal, under the chief architectUstad Ahmad Lahori, aPunjabi Muslim.^[27][28][29] He was said to have personal a preference for white marble in architecture, as in the Taj Mahal. Although some buildings built during his era were made of red sandstone, such as the Red Fort in Delhi, he preferred to use white marble for his private quarters.^[30]

TheMoti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in theAgra Fort and theJama Masjid atDelhi, the latter built under the supervision of hisGrand Vizier,Saadullah Khan, aPunjabi Muslim,^[31] are imposing buildings of his era, and their position and architecture have been carefully considered so as to produce a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious elegance and well-balanced proportion of parts. Shah Jahan also renovated buildings such as theMoti Masjid,Sheesh Mahal andNaulakha pavilion, which are all enclosed in theLahore Fort. He also built a mosque named after himself inThatta calledShahjahan Mosque (not built in the Mughal architecture, but inSafavid andTimurid architecture that were influenced by thePersian architecture). Shah Jahan also built theRed Fort in his new capital at Shah Jahanabad, nowOld Delhi. The red sandstone Red Fort is noted for its special buildings-Diwan-i-Aam andDiwan-i-Khas. Another mosque was built during his tenure inLahore calledWazir Khan Mosque, by Shaikh Ilm-ud-din Ansari who was the court physician to the emperor. It is famous for its rich embellishment which covers almost every interior surface. Overall public works by high nobles of Shah Jahan's amirs includedAli Mardan Khan,Ilmuddin Wazir Khan,Khan-i Dauran Nasiri Khan, and Kartalab KhanDeccani.^[32]

The Taj Mahal, aWorld Heritage Site was built between 1632 and 1653 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal .^[1] Its construction took 22 years and required 22,000 laborers and 1,000 elephants, at a cost of 32 millionrupees. (corresponding toUS$ 827 million in 2015) It is a large, white marble structure standing on a squareplinth and consists of a symmetrical building with aniwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome andfinial.

The building's longestplane ofsymmetry runs through the entire complex except for thesarcophagus of Shah Jahan, which is placed off centre in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry is extended to the building of an entire mirrormosque in red sandstone, to complement theMecca-facing mosque placed to the west of the main structure.Parchin kari, a method of decoration on a large scale-inlaid work of jewels andJali work has been used to decorate the structure.

The Wazir Khan Mosque was commissioned during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in 1634, and completed in 1642.^[33] Considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal-era mosque,^[34] Wazir Khan Mosque is renowned for its intricatefaience tile work known askashi-kari, as well as its interior surfaces that are almost entirely embellished with elaborate Mughal-erafrescoes. The mosque has been under extensive restoration since 2009 under the direction of theAga Khan Trust for Culture and theGovernment of Punjab.^[35]

It is aMughal garden complex located inLahore, capital of thePakistani province ofPunjab. The gardens date from the period when the Mughal Empire was at its artistic and aesthetic zenith.^[36] Construction of the gardens began in 1641 during the reign of EmperorShah Jahan,^[37] and was completed in 1642.^[38] In 1981 the Shalimar Gardens were inscribed as aUNESCO World Heritage Site as they embody Mughal garden design at the apogee of its development.^[36]

TheShah Jahan Mosque is thecentral mosque for the city ofThatta, in thePakistani province ofSindh. The mosque commissioned by Shah Jahan, who bestowed it to the city as a token of gratitude.^[39] Its style is heavily influenced by Central Asian Timurid architecture, which was introduced after Shah Jahan's campaigns nearBalkh andSamarkand.^[39] The mosque is considered to have the most elaborate display of tile work inSouth Asia,^[39][40] and is also notable for its geometric brick work - a decorative element that is unusual for Mughal-period mosques.^[41]

Shahi Hammam is aPersian-style bath which was built inLahore,Pakistan, in 1635C.E. during the reign of EmperorShah Jahan. It was built by chief physician to the Mughal Court, Ilam-ud-din Ansari, who was widely known asWazir Khan.^[42][43][44] The baths were built to serve as awaqf, or endowment, for the maintenance of theWazir Khan Mosque.^[45]

InAurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble withstucco ornament.Srirangapatna andLucknow have examples of later Indo-Mughal architecture. He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which were later named after him (Alamgir).

TheBadshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan, was commissioned by the sixthMughal EmperorAurangzeb. Constructed between 1673 and 1674, it is the largest Mughal mosque and the last of the imperial mosques to be built.^[2] The mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red sandstone. The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia decoration. Aurangzeb's mosque's architectural plan is similar to that of his father, Shah Jahan, the Jama Masjid in Delhi; though it is much larger. It also functions as anidgah. The courtyard which spreads over 276,000 square feet, can accommodate one hundred thousand worshippers; ten thousand can be accommodated inside the mosque. Theminarets are 196 feet (60 m) tall. The Mosque is one of the most famous Mughal structures but suffered greatly under the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1993, the Government of Pakistan included the Badshahi Mosque in the tentative list forUNESCO World Heritage Site.^[46]

Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family. The construction of the elegantZinat al-Masjid inDaryaganj was overseen by Aurangzeb's second daughterZinat-al-Nissa. Aurangzeb's sisterRoshan-Ara who died in 1671. The tomb ofRoshanara Begum and the garden surrounding it were neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay.

Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century as a loving tribute to his first wife,Dilras Bano Begum inAurangabad,Maharashtra. Some accounts suggest that later it was taken care by Azam Shah, son of aurangzeb. It is a replica of theTaj Mahal, and was designed by Ata-Ullah, the son ofAhmed Lahori, who was the principal designer of the Taj Mahal.

Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part ofDhaka,Bangladesh, whose construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb's son Azam Shah.

Sunehri Mosque is a late Mughal-era mosque in theWalled City of Lahore,Pakistan. Sunehri Mosque was built in 1753 when the empire was in decline, during the reign ofMuhammad Shah.

TheTomb of Safdar Jung completed in 1754 is one of the last examples of Mughal Architecture.

TheKhan Mohammad Mridha Mosque is a historical mosque nearLalbagh Fort in Dhaka, Bangladesh.^[47][48]

The mosque was built in Atish Khan Mahalla by Khan Mohammad Mridha under the instruction of Qadi Ibadullah in 1706 CE. The mosque rises above its surroundings because the tahkhana or underground rooms of the mosque are above grade. The roof of the tahkhana forms the platform on which the mosque is situated. The spacious prayer place before the main mosque is open in all directions allowing air to flow and keep the interior cool.^[49] Conservation of invaluable heritage sites in the 400-year-old city of Dhaka was ignored for many years. Destruction of heritage sites and historical monuments started during Pakistan period on a moderate scale but it gained momentum after independence. Heritage properties suffered destruction during the rule of military regime in Pakistan.^[50]

Mughal gardens are gardens built by the Mughals in theIslamic style. This style was influenced byPersian gardens. They are built in thechar bagh structure, which is a quadrilateral garden layout based on thefour gardens of Paradise mentioned in theQur'an. This style is intended to create a representation of an earthly utopia in which humans co-exist in perfect harmony with all elements of nature.^[51]

The quadrilateral garden is divided by walkways or flowing water into four smaller parts. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens.

Some famous examples of Mughal gardens are theBagh-e-Babur atKabul,Mehtab Bagh gardens at the Taj Mahal, gardens at Humayun's Tomb,Shalimar Gardens atLahore,Wah Gardens inWah,Khusro Bagh atPrayagraj, as well asPinjore Gardens atHaryana.

The ensemble of six Mughal Gardens ofJammu and Kashmir (Pari Mahal,Nishat Bagh,Shalimar Bagh,Chashme Shahi,Verinag Garden,Achabal Gardens) are on thetentative list ofUNESCO World Heritage Sites in India.

Mughal architecture has also influenced later Indian architectural styles, including theIndo-Saracenic style of theBritish Raj, theRajput style and theSikh style.^{[citation needed]} One scholar has also noted similarities between Mughal architecture and architectural projects within theEthiopian Empire in the early 17th century, primarily those sponsored bySusenyos I and carried out with the help of theJesuit missionaries that he patronized. This influence was likely due to the strong connections between the Jesuit missions in Ethiopia and Mughal India at the time. Indian craftsmen, possibly with experience in Mughal constructions, are also reported to have worked on the projects.^[52]

Several mosques inMalaysia, such as theKapitan Keling Mosque,Jamek Mosque, andZahir Mosque, were influenced by Mughal architecture in their designs.^[53] InBrunei, theOmar Ali Saifuddien Mosque also incorporates Mughal influences.^[54]

•  
  Jali decorative work at theTomb of Salim Chishti,Fatehpur Sikri.
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  Akbar's Tomb atAgra, India, uses red sandstone and white marble, like many of the Mughal monuments. TheTaj Mahal is a notable exception, as it uses only marble.
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  Jahangir's grave at theTomb of Jahangir,Lahore is decorated withparchin kari work.
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  Tomb of Nithar Begum atKhusro Bagh,Allahabad, India.
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  One of theTombs of Ustad-Shagird,Nakodar, India.
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  TheDarwaza-i-Rauza (Great Gate) of theTaj Mahal.
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  Lahori Gate of theRed Fort,Delhi, India.
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  Theshahada inArabic calligraphy at theWazir Khan Mosque,Lahore, Pakistan.
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  Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of private audience) atLahore Fort.
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  Shah Jahan Mosque inThatta, Pakistan. The mosque is not built in the Mughal style, but reflects a heavyPersian influence.

• Indo-Islamic architecture
• Indo-Persian culture

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